BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

Naqsh-e Rostam stands as a timeless testament to the grandeur of the Achaemenid dynasty, bridging the chasm between ancient Persian glories and the present

Naqsh-e Rostam is a historical landmark that connects the modern and ancient worlds, and it is tucked away in Iran's southwest. This spectacular archaeological site, which serves as the royal necropolis of the Achaemenid Empire, is frequently overshadowed by the more famous Persepolis nearby.

A collection of ancient Iranian rock reliefs are cut into the face of the mountain, and the mountain contains the final resting place of four Achaemenid kings, notably King Darius the Great and his son, Xerxes. This site is of great significance to the history of Iran and to Iranians, as it contains various archeological sites carved into the rock wall through time for more than a millennium, from the Elamites and Achaemenids to the Sassanids. It lies a few hundred meters from Naqsh-e Rajab, with a further four Sassanid rock reliefs: three celebrating kings and one a high priest.

A Brief Overview of the Achaemenid Dynasty

To understand Naqsh-e Rostam's significance, one must first delve into the origins of the Achaemenid Empire. Established in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great, this dynasty stood as the first great Persian Empire. At its zenith, it spread across three continents, from Egypt's boundaries in the west to the Indus Valley in the east. As the empire's heartland, the Fars province in modern-day Iran became the center of several monumental constructions, among which Naqsh-e Rostam shines brightly.

The Tombs of Kings

One of the site's most captivating features is the four monumental tombs carved into the face of the rocky cliffs. These tombs, each standing at a considerable height above the ground, house the remains of Achaemenid kings. Although the precise identification of each tomb remains a matter of debate, most scholars concur that they belong to Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II.

Each tomb façade displays a similar design: the figure of the king stands atop a platform, which symbolizes the cosmic world. The king is shown paying homage to a divine figure, perhaps Ahura Mazda, emphasizing the divine mandate that the Achaemenid kings claimed to have.

The façade of these tombs includes big panels above the entryway, each with fairly identical content, with figurines of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with troops and officials. These tombs are mostly decorated architecturally. The sizes of the three types of figures are clearly distinct. Each tomb has an entrance in the middle of the cross that leads to a small chamber where the king was buried in a sarcophagus.

Large figures of Sassanian monarchs, some praising gods and others engaged in battle, are depicted in rock reliefs near ground level, far below the Achaemenid tombs. The most well-known depicts the Roman Emperor Valerian kneeling before Sassanian King Shapur I on horseback, with Philip the Arab, an earlier emperor who paid tribute to Shapur, holding Shapur's horse as Gordian III, who was killed in combat, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This honors the Battle of Edessa in 260 AD, when Valerian became the sole Roman Emperor to be taken prisoner of war, a humiliating blow to the Romans that endured for centuries. These reliefs' placement strongly implies the Sassanid Empire's attempt to associate itself with the splendors of the preceding Achaemenid Empire.

Four Achaemenid kings' tombs are carved out of the rock face at a significant elevation above the ground. Because of the design of the tomb façade, the tombs are frequently referred to as Persian crosses. Each tomb has an entrance in the middle of the cross that leads to a small chamber where the king was buried in a sarcophagus. It is thought that the horizontal beam on each of the tomb's faces is a copy of a Persepolis entrance.

The accompanying inscription ("parsa parsahya puthra ariya ariyachitra," meaning "a Parsi, the son of a Parsi, an Aryan, of an Aryan family") specifically identifies one of the tombs as Darius I's tomb (c. 522-486 BC). The other three tombs are thought to belong to Artaxerxes I (c. 465–424 BC), Darius II (c. 423–404 BC), and Xerxes I (c. 486-465 BC). The graves of Naqsh-e Rostam are located in the following order (from left to right): Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, and Xerxes I. The other kings' graves have been matched in a rather speculative manner; the relief figures are not meant to be personal portraits.

Although Artaxerxes III's reign, which lasted the longest at two years, could qualify as the fifth incomplete one, Darius III (c. 336-330 BC), the final king of the Achaemenid Dynasty, is the most likely candidate. Following Alexander the Great's invasion of the Achaemenid Empire, the tombs were pillaged.

The Cube of Zoroaster

Another fascinating structure at Naqsh-e Rostam is the Cube of Zoroaster, a square tower that dates back to the 5th century BCE. The purpose of this enigmatic structure remains a mystery, with theories suggesting it may have been a tomb, a depository for objects of religious importance, or even an atypical fire temple.

Sassanian Reliefs

While primarily known for its Achaemenid connections, Naqsh-e Rostam also boasts significant Sassanian influences. The Sassanians, another influential Persian dynasty, left their mark through a series of rock reliefs. These carvings depict scenes from various Sassanian kings' victories and triumphs, reflecting a tradition of celebrating and immortalizing royal achievements in stone.

DARIUS INSCRIPTION

The top left corner of the facade of Darius I's tomb bears an inscription by him that dates to around 490 BCE and is commonly referred to as the "DNa inscription" in academic publications. It mentions Darius I's conquests and his many other accomplishments throughout his life. Although the exact year is unknown, it can be presumed that it dates from the latter ten years of his rule.

The Achaemenid Empire, which at the time of writing made up the biggest empire, is particularly mentioned, as are several other inscriptions by Darius. His empire reached as far as Gandhara and the Indus in the Indian Subcontinent, which were annexed during the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, as well as Thrace and Macedonia in Europe, Egypt in North Africa, Babylon and Assyria in Mesopotamia, the steppes of Eurasia, Bactria in Central Asia, and the Assyrian and Babylonian empires in Mesopotamia.

“A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created yonder sky, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Darius king, one king of many, one lord of many.

I am Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries containing all kinds of men, king in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan lineage.

King Darius says: By the favor of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly; Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandara [Gadâra], India [Hiduš], the haoma-drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks (Yauna), the Scythians across the sea (Sakâ), Thrace, the petasos-wearing Greeks [Yaunâ], the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians.

King Darius says: Ahuramazda, when he saw this earth in commotion, thereafter bestowed it upon me, made me king; I am king. By the favor of Ahuramazda I put it down in its place; what I said to them, that they did, as was my desire.

If now you shall think that "How many are the countries which King Darius held?" look at the sculptures [of those] who bear the throne, then shall you know, then shall it become known to you: the spear of a Persian man has gone forth far; then shall it become known to you: a Persian man has delivered battle far indeed from Persia.

Darius the King says: This which has been done, all that by the will of Ahuramazda I did. Ahuramazda bore me aid, until I did the work. May Ahuramazda protect me from harm, and my royal house, and this land: this I pray of Ahuramazda, this may Ahuramazda give to me!

O man, that which is the command of Ahuramazda, let this not seem repugnant to you; do not leave the right path; do not rise in rebellion!”

Naqsh-e Rostam provides a glimpse into the magnificence and profound cultural origins of prehistoric Iran. It serves as a lasting reminder of an empire that once pushed the boundaries of the known universe, in addition to serving as a necropolis for the Achaemenid kings. A trip to this location is a trip back in time, bringing to life the echoes of historic rituals, regal pronouncements, and legends of mighty monarchs and their final resting places.