New runestone discovered – might be one of the oldest in Denmark

A new runestone has been discovered in Denmark, and it may be one of the oldest in the country, according to the National Museum of Denmark, which described it as "extremely rare." 

THE VIKING HERALD

The Mosekær runestone is two meters long and 80 centimeters wide. Source: Lene Brandt

The runestone was discovered by accident by Lene Brandt and her husband, Anders Nielsen, while they were renovating the kitchen in a house a little outside the city of Randers in Denmark. The find is the 44th runestone discovered in the area around Randers.

The couple immediately called the culture-historical Museum Østjylland. The estate is from the 1800s, and the stone was under the floor under the stove.

The runestone is two meters long and 80 centimeters wide. As it was found in the Mosekær village, it has already been named the Mosekær stone (Mosekærstenen).

"The more floor we removed, the larger the stone appeared. I'm a little proud that it was found here and that we managed to get it transported out of the house in one piece," Lene Brandt told DR.

The fascinating runestone

was discovered by Lene Brandt and Anders Nielsen while they were renovating their kitchen in a house outside of Randers in Denmark. Photo: Lene Brandt

Initial examinations

Runologist Lisbeth Imer of the National Museum in Copenhagen has examined the runestone and identified an important detail on it.

It is engraved with five runes that can be read as "aft bi" and roughly translated to "In memory of B..."

After this, the rest of the stone is broken off or chopped off, so the rest of the name is not visible.

Runestones are typically erected in memory of people, so this one must have been erected on behalf of someone with a name that starts with B (maybe Bjørn, Bjarne, or Birger?)

At first glance, the runes seem to make up the end of a longer rune text, but they could also be the beginning of the stone's rune text, Lisbeth Imer believes.

There are only five carvings – i.e., runic letters - left of the original inscription in the stone.

The runestone is engraved with five runes that can be read as "aft bi" and translated to "In memory of B..." Photo: The National Museum of Denmark

Important detail

And it is this detail - whether the runes begin or finish the sentence on the runestone - that can help experts determine what time period the runestone is from.

If it is the beginning of the sentence, the stone probably belongs to the oldest group of runestones in Denmark, which has precisely this type of inscriptions - making it an extremely rare runestone.

For example, such a runestone is the Flemløse stone from Southern Funen, which dates all the way back to the 7th century, with an inscription that begins in exactly the same way "Aft [name] ..."

According to the National Museum of Denmark, the Mosekær stone could date back to the 8th century when the Viking Age began. In comparison, Jellingstenenen is from the year 965.

However, it seems the National Museum of Denmark needs more time to determine how old - and rare – the stone actually is.

The stone will now be included in the National Museum's official collection. It could later be lent for exhibition at Museum Østjylland.

There are only five carvings left of the original inscription in the runestone. Photo: The National Museum of Denmark

Rude Effigy Discovered in 800-Year-Old Church in England

A detail of a sculpture carved from an 800-year-old church in Hereford, England, caught the attention of a regular and sparked an internet debate. The image shows a man with his legs up, in an erotic position. It is located in the Church of All Saints and was discovered due to the construction of a cafe.

According to publications, the image was detected when it was illuminated by strong lights located on an extra floor in the establishment next to the church.

The sculpture shows a naked man holding his legs up, exposing his genitals. An online forum user hypothesized that the hoist was a carpenter's "revenge" for not receiving his pay at the time.

The All Saints exhibitionist has raised quite a few eyebrows in recent years – in part because he’s now more visible to the public since the church started serving coffee and provided seats and table in an upstairs gallery below the roof from which he moons down on us. He’s unusual in all kinds of ways. Although grotesques, even obscene ones, are not uncommon on medieval churches, they most often occur on the outside. When they do appear inside, they’re usually above doorways, arches, or entrances, and for many, this helps to explain their presence: they’re there, it’s said, to ward off evil spirits attempting to enter a sacred space. They do this, it is argued, by means of a kind of homoeopathy perhaps best summed up in the phrase ‘like cures like’. This kind of protective notion does not explain this figure’s presence high in the roof. Neither does another theory, that they are there to dissuade us from the sins they represent – before the construction of the gallery the exhibitionist was very difficult to spot.

Literally hundreds of churches could employ skilled masons and just not make the proper payment. The 'church' being an institution, it was almost always impossible for the workers to receive their due that time.

According to the Hereford Times, similar carvings are well documented in churches across Europe, with images of naked women prevailing. "The carvings are believed to be intended to ward off death, evil and demons," the website says. The cafe that lit up the image was built in 1990. The carving had already been seen by others and nicknamed "Seamus O'Toole". The tabloid also claims that, at the time, there were plans to monetize the discovery by creating postcards, but the idea was stopped by the congregation for "pushing the limits of decency too far".

Many like to suggest that he’s simply a carver’s joke. In one corner of the roof, he could have been done as the carver was finishing his work, and the scaffolding swiftly removed before the priest or the parish bigwigs had had the chance to inspect the roof too closely. We’ll never know whether this was the case. To modern eyes he just seems to be attracting attention of a particularly saucy kind. Something to ponder over the next cappuccino and cake.

How J.R.R Tolkien created Lord of the Ring's Middle Earth using an archaeological site in the Forest of Dean

The magic of Middle Earth is wrapped up in Lydney Park

It is often wondered whether the magical and intricate landscapes of Middle Earth were devised straight from J.R.R Tolkien’s incredible imagination or reworkings of landscapes he had seen before. It is believed that the author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings was partly inspired by an archaeological find in the Forest of Dean.

Tolkien was reportedly influenced by the ancient Roman archaeological site that he worked on at Lydney Park in 1929. He worked on the site of an old Roman temple, known as Dwarf’s Hill.

The hill was built on an earlier Iron Age settlement, and was littered with tunnels and open cast iron mines. It is said that Tolkien was very taken with the whole area.

At the time, there were rumours that within 20 years of the Romans leaving, local people thought the ruins were the homes of dwarves and hobgoblins that were afraid of the hill. It was during this time that Tolkien was working on The Hobbit, and was evidently interested in the rumours surrounding the archaeological ruins.

There are certainly similarities between Tolkien’s Shire and the secluded Lydney Park. The park is a wooden valley, with lakes, a deer park and flowering shrubs. In spring time it is carpeted with daffodils, primroses and bluebells.

Another connection is that the roman God Noden was known as the Lord of the Mines – not too far away from The Lord of the Rings. It seems as though the area is wrapped up in a folklore very similar to the iconic trilogy.

Extraordinary discovery for the Western Baltic Sea region: a 400-year-old shipwreck Found at Bottom of German River

During a routine measurement at Trave, near Lübeck, in the northern part of Germany,  Kiel-Holtenau Waterways and Shipping Authority (Wasserstraßen- und Schifffahrtsamt/WSA) discovered a ship at a depth of eleven meters (nearly 36 feet ).

Researchers from Kiel University spent eight months studying the wreck, determining that 150 barrels of cargo went down with the Hanseatic ship.

The researchers described the wreck as “a unique discovery in the western Baltic Sea region.” The Hanseatic wreck was about 400 years old and contained 150 barrels of quicklime, a common building material at the time.

Based on images and videos, the researchers created 3D models to calculate the ship’s original length, which was 20-25 meters. As a result, the ship was a medium-sized cargo sailing ship, the workhorse of the Baltic Sea trade.

13 dives totalling 464 minutes provided the researchers with enough material for their first extensive report on the sunken ship from the Hanseatic period. Photo: © Scientific diver Christian Howe

“This find is extraordinary for the western Baltic Sea region,” said Fritz Jürgens, an archaeologist at Kiel University in Germany whose team examined the wreck, in a university release. Until now, similar wrecks dating from different centuries have only been found in the eastern Baltic Sea region.

“Independent dating of the ship’s timbers in three different laboratories revealed that the ship must have been constructed in the mid-17th century,” added Dr. Fritz Jürgens.

The dives revealed that the wreck was eroding rapidly and that exposed areas were plagued with shipworm. If no protection measures are adopted, the wreck will be destroyed within a few years, and this relic of the Hanseatic City of Lübeck’s significant marine trade would be gone forever.

Dr. Fritz Jürgens has reconstructed the sunken ship. Photo: © Dr. Fritz Jürgens, Kiel University

The researchers at Kiel University are developing a plan for the continued care and protection of the wreck in collaboration with the City of Lübeck and other organizations to avoid this from happening. They are considering salvaging and then preserving it.

According to initial findings, the ship was on its way from Scandinavia to Lübeck but never arrived. More research is needed to establish why the Hanseatic ship sunk.  Initial indications suggest that the ship could have run aground on a bend in the Trave river, where it was seriously damaged and therefore sank.

Danish king who gave name to Bluetooth could be buried in Poland, researchers claim

King Harald "Bluetooth" Gormsson was thought to be buried in Roskilde in Denmark but a Swedish archaeologist and a Polish researcher have claimed they have pinpointed his most probable burial site as the village of Wiejkowo in Poland.

By Samuel Osborne, news reporter

A Viking king whose nickname was used for Bluetooth wireless technology could actually be buried in Poland rather than Denmark, researchers have claimed.

According to a chronicle from the Middle Ages, King Harald "Bluetooth" Gormsson of Denmark, who died 1,000 years ago, was buried in Roskilde in Denmark in the late 10th century.

But a Swedish archaeologist and a Polish researcher have recently claimed in separate publications they have pinpointed his most probable burial site as the village of Wiejkowo, in an area of north-western Poland that had ties to the Vikings in Bluetooth's time.

Marek Kryda, author of the book Viking Poland, told The Associated Press a "pagan mound" he claims to have located beneath Wiejkowo's 19th-century Roman Catholic church probably holds the king's remains.

He said geological satellite images available on a Polish government portal reveal a rotund shape under the Church of The Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary that looks like a Viking burial mound.

But Swedish archaeologist Sven Rosborn says Mr Kryda is wrong because Bluetooth, who converted from paganism to Christianity and founded churches in the area, must have been buried in an appropriate grave somewhere in the churchyard.

Bluetooth died in 985, probably in Jomsborg - now believed to be the Polish town of Wolin - which is near Wiejkowo.

He was given his nickname because one of his teeth, which had probably gone bad, looked blueish, according to chronicles from the time.

He was one of the last Viking kings to rule over what is now Denmark, northern Germany and parts of Sweden and Norway and spread Christianity throughout his kingdom.

Swedish telecommunications company Ericsson named its Bluetooth wireless technology after the king to reflect how he united much of Scandinavia during his rule. The logo for the technology features the Scandinavian runic letters for the king's initials, HB.

Mr Rosborn put forward his research in the 2021 book The Viking King's Golden Treasure and Mr Kryda challenged some of his findings in his own book published this year.

Mr Rosborn, former director of Sweden's Malmo City Museum, began his quest in 2014 when an 11-year-old girl asked his opinion about a small coin-like object with old-looking text that had been in her family's possession for decades.

The 10th-century golden Curmsun disc with the name of Danish King Harald 'Bluetooth' Gormsson. Pic: AP

Experts determined the cast gold "Curmsun disc" dated from the 10th century, with a Latin inscription reading: "Harald Gormsson (Curmsun in Latin) king of Danes, Scania, Jomsborg, town Aldinburg."

Maja Sielski's family, who moved to Sweden from Poland in 1986, said the disc came from a trove found in 1841 in a tomb beneath the Wiejkowo church, which replaced the medieval chapel.

The Sielski family came into possession of the disc along with the Wiejkowo parish archives, which contained medieval parchment chronicles in Latin, in 1945.

A family member who could read Latin translated some of the chronicles, which dated as far back as the 10th century, into Polish, to find they mention Bluetooth - another fact linking him to the Wiejkowo church.

Mr Kryda said the Curmsun disc is "phenomenal" with its meaningful inscription and said it would be worth it to examine Wiejkowo as Bluetooth's burial place.

However there are currently no plans for any excavations.

New runic artifacts discovered during excavation at the Medieval Park in Oslo's old town

Archaeologists excavating the Medieval Park in Oslo's old town have discovered eight new finds of runic objects from medieval Oslo (three of bone, three of wood, one of metal, and one possibly of horn). In addition, there is a find of a piece of bone with script-like markings.

The information has been confirmed to The Viking Herald by Kristel Zilmer, professor of runology and iconography at the University of Oslo.
Over the last several months, the dig at the Medieval Park in Oslo has resulted in a number of interesting finds, including multiple runic objects.

Exciting rune finds

In the run-up to Christmas of 2021, two runic inscriptions were discovered during excavations in Oslo's old town. The first inscription is carved on bone – it was also the first bone with runes found in Oslo in more than forty years. The second one is carved on wood, with a religious text in Norse and Latin.

Zilmer provided NIKU with initial interpretations of the runic inscriptions at the time. In an e-mail to The Viking Herald, she says that her interpretations haven't changed since then.

"The work on all the finds is ongoing, but thus far, I have not seen anything that would change the interpretations that I proposed of the two earliest finds, presented by NIKU and Science Norway. With the runic stick that carries phrases in Latin and Old Norse, my further investigations have been able to confirm some of the initial readings of individual runes that support the overall interpretation of the inscription as combining religious statements in two languages," Zilmer noted.

Challenges regarding runic inscriptions

She also reflected on problems and challenges related to the interpretation of runic inscriptions.

"In general, we runologists try to distinguish between the levels of reading the inscription (identifying the individual runic characters) and interpretation (establishing the meaning of the text as a whole). In reality, of course, there are fluid borders between these two phases, and as scholars, we will have our preconceptions and hypotheses when working with new finds.

"The key point is to try to stay critical throughout the process and see what can support a particular reading or interpretation as well as what might contradict it. Common difficulties have to do with damages, fragmentarily preserved objects and inscriptions, ambiguous character shapes, or sequences that do not seem to provide any direct lexical meaning (but these may, of course, still have meant something to those who produced the messages)," she explained.

The importance of runic finds

Talking about the importance and rarity of runic finds – such as the ones discovered in Oslo – Zilmer accentuated that they offer new windows of opportunity to develop our understanding of medieval people.

"Every new runic find, every new discovery adds new evidence that we can build upon when we want to learn about medieval people across different layers of the society. Urban finds of simple pieces of wood and bone, personal equipment, and practical tools show that many things could be turned into writing materials and used for different purposes. We can learn more about what people wrote, how they wrote – what materials they used to express themselves.

"We learn about their activities and also about what was important for them to record or share with others. We naturally see that their skills varied, and we do not really know how wide-reaching runic literacy may have been. But possibly many town-dwellers could at least have some degree of runic knowledge (some perhaps being able to recognize/recreate some simple shapes)", Zilmer concluded.

THE VIKING HERALD

High-status Danish Vikings wore exotic beaver furs

Beaver fur was a symbol of wealth and an important trade item in 10th Century Denmark, according to a study published July 27, 2022 in the open-access journal PLOS ONE by Luise Ørsted Brandt of the University of Copenhagen and colleagues.

Written sources indicate that fur was a key commodity during the Viking Age, between 800-1050 CE, but fur doesn't often survive well in the archaeological record, so little direct evidence is available. Previous reports have used the microscopic anatomy of ancient fur to identify species of origin, but this method is often inexact. All in all, not much is known about the kinds of furs the Vikings preferred.

Map of studied sites (a) and examples of included fur: b) Hvilehøj C4273-97, fragment 1, c) Hvilehøj C4280c, d) Bjerringhøj C143. Graphics: Luise Ørsted Brandt and Charlotte Rimstad. Photos: Roberto Fortuna, National Museum of Denmark. Credit: Brandt et al., 2022, PLOS ONE, CC-BY 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

In this study, Brandt and colleagues analyzed animal remains from six high-status graves from 10th Century Denmark. While no ancient DNA was recovered from the samples, perhaps due to treatment processes performed on furs and skins and probably due to preservation conditions, identifiable proteins were recovered by two different analytical techniques. Grave furnishings and accessories included skins from domestic animals, while clothing exhibited furs from wild animals, specifically a weasel, a squirrel, and beavers.

These findings support the idea that fur was a symbol of wealth during the Viking Age. The fact that beavers are not native to Denmark suggests this fur was a luxury item acquired through trade. Some clothing items included fur from multiple species, demonstrating a knowledge of the varying functions of different animal hides, and may have indicated a desire to show off exclusive furs. The authors note the biggest limiting factor in this sort of study is the incompleteness of comparative protein databases; as these databases expand, more specific identifications of ancient animal skins and furs will be possible.

The authors add: "In the Viking Age, wearing exotic fur was almost certainly an obvious visual statement of affluence and social status, similar to high-end fashion in today's world. This study uses ancient proteins preserved in elite Danish Viking burials to provide direct evidence of beaver fur trade and use."

'Dragon skull' found buried in Shrewsbury Castle as exploration hots up

Archaeologists exploring an historic castle in a heatwave may have felt like they were under attack from a fire-breathing monster - but never expected to come across a 'Welsh dragon'.

Dr Nigel Baker, at Shrewsbury Castle

Experts and student volunteers have been digging at Shrewsbury Castle since Sunday, July 17, and were seriously feeling the heat last week.

They have made several interesting discoveries, including animal bones which resemble a dragon's skull. But could they really have found evidence of a mythical creature?

"It looks like it could be the head of a Welsh dragon, but in reality, it's a large piece of cow," said Dr Morn Capper, with a wry smile.

A dragon skull? No, just part of a bovine skeleton

They may not have found a winged serpent in the grounds of the castle, but the dig has captured the imagination of Salopians, 700 of whom turned up on Saturday to an open day to take a look at some of the artefacts. Shropshire Council's cabinet members have also been to visit this week.

As well as animal bones, ornate pottery and glass, the team have also uncovered structures providing more clues to the castle's history.

They have dug three large holes at the top of the motte, next to Laura's Tower.

"We're probably at the most exciting point in the excavation, because to find more stuff at the bottom of the hole you're digging before you get to the end of the project, and you have to fill it back up again," said archaeologist Dr Nigel Baker.

"We know this was the strongest point of the Norman castle, and was once crowned by a tall wooden tower, sometimes called the ‘Great Tower of Shrewsbury’, until that was undermined by the river and fell down in the mid-1200s.

“The big question is though – how much damage did Thomas Telford do up there when he built Laura’s Tower? Previous digs found that Telford’s restoration in the 1780s had been extremely destructive, though evidence survived that the site had been occupied in the Saxon period, and before the castle was built by the Normans to suppress revolt in newly-conquered Shrewsbury."

Within the holes the team has dug, you can see "ear-shaped" crevices which would have supported the wooden frame of the 'Great Tower'.

"This proves the intentions of William the Conqueror for this castle," added Dr Capper, of University Centre Shrewsbury's history and archaeology department. With views from the top stretching for miles, it could have been a key point for Norman control.

The dig, which was made possible by a £6,790 grant from the Castle Studies Trust, has also provided an invaluable opportunity for University Centre Shrewsbury students to get hands on experience at unearthing history.

Student volunteer Demi Jefferies, from Florida, US, is studying for a masters in museums and heritage practice in Shrewsbury. She said: "I've always been really into history, and I've always loved British history. When I got the opportunity to come here I had to take it. You can learn so much with books, but coming here and being involved in something like this brings it to life."

This was the third archaeological dig at the castle, and Dr Baker said he doesn't think there will be another any time soon due to what has already been found, and the research that will need to go into exploring artefacts discovered.

But he was pleased with the team's work in roasting hot weather. "I think our team deserve huge credit for working in the worst conditions I can think of," he said.

TodayWEDS is the last opportunity to visit the castle and see the finds made before the team leaves the site. Visitors are welcome until 4.30pm.

In Drug Trafficking Raid, Spanish Police Find Antiquities Instead

When Spanish authorities raided the home of a suspected drug trafficker in the Valencian town of Guadasser, they were expecting to find drugs and weapons. Instead they found a trove of archaeological artifacts stretching back to the 12th century which were suspected to looted.

The find represents more evidence of the links between the global trade in looted antiquities and other forms of organized crime. (Photo: Guardia Civil, License)

“The agents have found archaeological remains of ceramics - such as tiles, pots and bowls - dating between the 12th and 18th centuries. Some of the pieces were arranged on work tables for classification and restoration, while others were already restored and displayed in different areas of the home,” Spanish authorities said in a statement.

The 68-year-old owner was arrested on charges of crimes against historical heritage, against public health, drug trafficking, and illegal possession of weapons after an unregistered rifle and shotgun were also found.

“Yet another example of overlap between different commodities in transnational criminal networks,” tweeted the ATHAR Project which tracks the illegal antiquities trade online.

The illegal antiquities trade is a multi-billion dollar global industry, according to a 2018 report by Standard Chartered Bank and in recent years law enforcement has begun to see how it ties in with other criminal industries.

It’s not just an industry that only affects wealthy buyers in the West either. Antiquities trafficking frequently funds militancy and organized crime in the source counties as well. Groups which have no compunctions about trafficking in arms or narcotics, rarely also have issues trading in their nations’ cultural heritage.

“Organized crime has many faces. The trafficking of cultural goods is one of them and it is not a glamorous business run by flamboyant gentlemen forgers, but by international criminal networks,” said Catherine de Bolle, Executive Director of Europol after a massive crackdown on the trade in 2020.

Rarely seen anchor uncovered in Devon harbour dates back to 1800s

A rare anchor "only seen a handful of times in the last 200 years" has been uncovered in a small harbour in Devon.

The anchor was found by a local history group in Turnchapel, Plymouth, is believed to date to the 1800s and to have come from a Royal Navy ship.

It appeared at the base of a harbour wall with its wooden stock attached.

Archaeologists have been excavating and said it was an "amazing opportunity... to engage people with maritime archaeology".

The anchor was likely laid on the shore prior to the harbour wall being built

Mallory Haas, Director and Maritime Archaeologist for The SHIPS Project Community Interest Company said: "Anchors of this age and style with their wooden stocks are very rare, and being able to have one that is on the foreshore is rather amazing."

"I have only seen one other one that was in the mud on the Thames river in London.

The team hopes to find out more about the origins of the anchor

"We can approximate its age due to it being incorporated into the South harbour wall, the anchor likely dates to the early 1800s, and is English in design and is also likely Royal Navy, however we did not find any markings, like the broad arrow."

The anchor was first spotted by the Turnchapel History Group and is thought to have been laid against the harbour wall prior to it being built, and incorporated into the harbour landscape.

Those involved now intend to make a detailed drawing of the anchor from the measurements gathered and compare it to known designs and to understand the type or size of ship it may have come from.

Rare 1000-year-old sword found in Poland

An almost one-metre-long sword estimated to be around a thousand years old has been found in southern Poland. Historians say it is one of the most valuable discoveries in the region in a long time.

The sword was discovered only 30 centimetres below ground level near the village of Lewin Klodzki, close to the border with the Czech Republic, by a man who is exploring the area with the permission of archaeologists. No remains to help identify the potential owner or other metal obejcts were found alongside the sword.

“Such a sword is priceless,” said archaeologist Marek Kowalski of the Lower Silesian Office for the Protection of Historical Monuments, quoted by Gazeta Wyborcza daily.

“It had the value of one or even several villages. So it undoubtedly belonged to some knight. Such things were not simply abandoned.”

It is not yet known whether the sword ended up underground in the 11th century or later. However, the expert who inspected the weapon, Dr Lech Marek from the Institute of Archaeology at the University of Wrocław, has no doubts regarding the sword’s age, said Kowalski.

“Identical swords have been excavated at Ostrów Lednicki, where one of the most important castles of the Piast state was,” Kowalski added, referring to the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland, which ruled Poland until the 14th century.

The first Piasts, probably of West Slavic and Lechitic tribe descent, appeared around 940 in the territory of Greater Poland (Wielkopolska).

The archaeologists speculate that there may have been a fortress near the site where the sword was found. In the 11th century, Bolesław the Brave, the first king of Poland, who was in conflict with the Czechs, ordered his son, Mieszko II, to invade Bohemia, today the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic.

The sword will now be subjected to a historical analysis, examined for metallography using CT scans in an attempt to find inscriptions despite the corroded surface, Kowalski told Gazeta Wyborcza.

This might help the researchers to determine where the sword was made and who was its potential owner.

DNA from plague victims’ teeth may unravel the origin of Black Death

More than six centuries ago, the Black Death ravaged Europe, Asia, and North Africa. The plague killed up to 60 percent of the people in western Eurasia within eight years. How the bacterial strain responsible for this pandemic infiltrated human populations has been debated ever since.

In a study published on June 15 in Nature, an international group of researchers pinpoints the Black Death’s ground zero to early 14th-century Central Asia. They analyzed historical records, archaeological data, and DNA from the teeth of skeletons buried in two cemeteries in Kyrgyzstan. Within those 700-year-old remains, the scientists identified the plague-causing bacterium, Yersinia pestis. 

The team concluded that the pandemic germ’s ancestor evolved in this area, based on its relationship to present-day strains of Y. pestis. The findings solve a centuries-old mystery and can also help understand emerging infectious diseases, Philip Slavin, a historian at the University of Stirling in Scotland and co-author of the findings, told Popular Science in an email. 

“It’s always important to not treat different strains as isolated phenomena,” he said, “but as something that is situated within a much wider evolutionary picture.”

Experts who weren’t involved with the study say the results are intriguing but require more confirmation.

“[The] findings are interesting but preliminary, and further research is desirable and required to enlarge and deepen the findings,” Ole J. Benedictow, an emeritus professor of archaeology, conservation, and history at the University of Oslo in Norway and author of The Complete History of the Black Death, said in an email. “Paleobiological historical plague studies are still in an early phase of development, we can expect a wealth of new interesting findings and many surprises in the future.” 

Finding plague in teeth

Infected fleas, whose rodent hosts have perished, typically transmit plague to people. Y. pestis has afflicted humans for more than a millenium, causing three separate pandemics that began in the 6th, 14th, and 19th centuries. The Black Death took place between 1346 and 1353; after this initial devastating wave, the bubonic plague settled into a pandemic that lasted for several centuries.

Scholars—including scientists from the 14th century and modern historians—have speculated about many potential locations for the Black Death’s initial source. Those sites have included China, Central Asia, the steppes between the Black and Caspian Seas, Mongolia, Russia, and India, Slavin said. 

To trace its origin, Slavin and his collaborators examined the remains from two cemeteries near Lake Issyk-Kul in present-day Kyrgyzstan. The cemeteries had been excavated during the late 19th century but are much older: Tombstone inscriptions dated from 1338 to 1339 state that a number of the bodies had been victims of “pestilence.” To verify the identity of that pestilence, the team extracted genetic material from the teeth (which preserve the pathogens present in a person’s bloodstream) of seven individuals. They detected Y. pestis in three people from the Kara-Djigach cemetery. 

The Kara-Djigach site, excavated between 1885 and 1892, and photographed here in 1886.  A.S. Leybin

While the DNA had broken down over time, two of the teeth contained enough material for the team to reconstruct the bacterial strain’s position within the plague family tree. The researchers concluded that the strain of Y. pestis in the teeth was the most recent common ancestor of several branches of plague still found today, one of which included the strain responsible for the Black Death. Additionally, the team reported, the ancient Kara-Djigach strain is closely related to the Y. pestis that continues to circulate in marmots of the surrounding Tian Shan mountains. 

“We consider [it] most probable that the ancient strain evolved locally, within the extended Tian Shan Mountain region, and was not introduced into the Kara-Djigach community from a far-away source,” Slavin said. “At some point the bacteria crossed over from marmots to humans.”

The presence of gems, silks, coins, and other artifacts near the cemeteries indicate that the communities struck by the epidemic contained many goods that had been produced far away. Trade may have played an important role spreading the pathogen westward to the Black Sea, Slavin said in a call with reporters. 

An unsettled genesis

The new report confirms that the pestilence victims near Lake Issyk-Kul did indeed die of plague, said Nükhet Varlık, a medical historian at Rutgers University–Newark who wasn’t involved in the research. However, this doesn’t necessarily establish the source of the Black Death. “Here we are presented with one plausible origins scenario, but it does not exclude other possible ones,” Varlık said in an email. 

Many questions remain concerning the paper’s “larger implications” for the history of the Black Death and the pandemic it kicked off, she said. Among these are what conditions could have prompted the disease to spill from local rodents into people near Lake Issyk-Kul, or whether the infection might have instead been introduced from elsewhere. 

“Moreover, we still do not know how this local outbreak was historically connected to the earliest recorded incidence of the Black Death in the Black Sea region in 1346,” Varlık said. “Evolutionary studies of Yersinia pestis and our modern experience with the COVID-19 pandemic teach us that it may be nearly impossible to establish [the] ‘true origin’ of pandemics.”

The new findings suggest that the ancestor of the Black Death strain showed up considerably later than previous work has indicated, said Vladimir Motin, a microbiologist at the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston who studies Y. pestis. Earlier studies suggested it caused local outbreaks in Asia for at least a century, he said.

“Right now it’s a good hypothesis; is it true or not, I don’t know,” he said. “But it’s definitely an interesting question which we should take into consideration.”

Monica H. Green, an independent scholar who specializes in medical and medieval history, agrees with Varlık that the paper establishes 14th-century remains in Kyrgyzstan were infected with Y. pestis. But Green, who has studied the presence of plague in western Asia in the 1250s, isn’t convinced the findings determine the time period when this ancestral strain appeared. The plague bacterium mutates slowly when it’s circulating in marmots, she points out, which means that the strain might have made its debut well before the outbreaks.

“Have they documented emergence of a new stage in plague’s history…in the 14th century?” Green said in an email. “Or have they documented the persistence of a new lineage that had already been dispersing for several decades by the time these two communities to the west of Issyk-Kul were struck?” 

She suspects that the strain Slavin and his team retrieved is a “cousin” of the bacteria that spread westward to cause the Black Death. To unravel the pandemic’s genesis, researchers will need to collect more ancient DNA samples from the region and beyond. 

The history of plague offers important clues toward understanding how pandemics begin and spread, Green said. “We have never needed rigorous debate about pandemic histories more than now.” 

Source: popsci

Archaeologists discover mysterious 1,300-year-old shipwreck near Bordeaux

Unearthed in 2015, during preventive excavations before the construction of a vast real estate project a few hundred meters from the Garonne, this ship is “the second or third” dating from the High Middle Ages discovered in France.

In Villenave-d’Ornon, a few kilometers south of Bordeaux, archaeologists from Inrap (National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research) are trying throughout the summer to unravel the mysteries of an “extremely rare” wreck, buried since 1300 years under an old arm of the Garonne. Unearthed in 2015, during preventive excavations before the construction of a vast real estate project a few hundred meters from the Garonne, this ship is “the second or the third” dating from the High Middle Ages discovered in France, according to Laurent Grimbert, archaeologist, responsible for the excavation presented to the press on Tuesday June 14.

According to the first datings of wood and ceramic pieces, the 12-meter long wreck would have transported goods, probably agricultural, on the river and as far as the Atlantic coast between 680 and 720. At the time, the city of Bordeaux, under the control of the Merovingians, was part of an independent Duchy of Aquitaine. It was plundered in 732 by the emir Abd al-Raman, then besieged a century later by the Vikings. But the origin of the ship, whose excavations started in 2019, remains a mystery. To avoid the drying out and degradation of these pieces of wood buried for 13 centuries, and watered every 30 minutes on site, the archaeologists will only have three months to carry out their complete study.

Complex excavations

“We are probably on a mix, the dismantling will tell us, on a crossbreeding of techniques” of the time going from the north of Europe to the Mediterranean, explains on the spot Marc Guyon, specialist in naval architecture. Until the beginning of September, a team of 10 archaeologists will try to dismantle the 200 to 300 ribs (transverse beams) which structure the hull, via hundreds of pegs, to determine the architectural tradition of the boat, its real height, its capacity to tonnage, or even the techniques used at the time to make it watertight.

To find its precise geographical origin, an archaeo-dendometer dispatched to the site analyzes the wood of the parts of the boat already dismantled – oak, Scots pine, chestnut – to draw up its growth curve, via its rings, before comparing it. reference chronologies on forests compiled at European level. Ceramic boxes, animal bones and a wooden spoon will also be analyzed.

The site will be open to the public on Saturday June 18 during the European Archeology Days.

Why did people start eating Egyptian mummies? The weird and wild ways mummy fever swept through Europe

Why did people think cannibalism was good for their health? The answer offers a glimpse into the zaniest crannies of European history, at a time when Europeans were obsessed with Egyptian mummies.

Driven first by the belief that ground-up and tinctured human remains could cure anything from bubonic plague to a headache, and then by the macabre ideas Victorian people had about after-dinner entertainment, the bandaged corpses of ancient Egyptians were the subject of fascination from the Middle Ages to the 19th century.

Mummy mania

Faith that mummies could cure illness drove people for centuries to ingest something that tasted awful.

Mumia, the product created from mummified bodies, was a medicinal substance consumed for centuries by rich and poor, available in apothecaries' shops, and created from the remains of mummies brought from Egyptian tombs back to Europe.

By the 12th century apothecaries were using ground up mummies for their otherworldly medicinal properties. Mummies were a prescribed medicine for the next 500 years.

In a world without antibiotics, physicians prescribed ground up skulls, bones and flesh to treat illnesses from headaches to reducing swelling or curing the plague.

Not everyone was convinced. Guy de la Fontaine, a royal doctor, doubted mumia was a useful medicine and saw forged mummies made from dead peasants in Alexandria in 1564. He realised people could be conned. They were not always consuming genuine ancient mummies.

But the forgeries illustrate an important point: there was constant demand for dead flesh to be used in medicine and the supply of real Egyptian mummies could not meet this.

Apothecaries and herbalists were still dispensing mummy medicines into the 18th century.

Mummy's medicine

Not all doctors thought dry, old mummies made the best medicine. Some doctors believed that fresh meat and blood had a vitality the long-dead lacked.

The claim that fresh was best convinced even the noblest of nobles. England's King Charles II took medication made from human skulls after suffering a seizure, and, until 1909, physicians commonly used human skulls to treat neurological conditions.

For the royal and social elite, eating mummies seemed a royally appropriate medicine , as doctors claimed mumia was made from pharaohs. Royalty ate royalty.

A jar used for storing mumia, a medicine made from the ground up remains of mummified humans. Credit: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY

Dinner, drinks, and a show

By the 19th century, people were no longer consuming mummies to cure illness but Victorians were hosting "unwrapping parties" where Egyptian corpses would be unwrapped for entertainment at private parties.

Napoleon's first expedition into Egypt in 1798 piqued European curiosity and allowed 19th century travellers to Egypt to bring whole mummies back to Europe bought off the street in Egypt.

Victorians held private parties dedicated to unwrapping the remains of ancient Egyptian mummies.

Early unwrapping events had at least a veneer of medical respectability. In 1834 the surgeon Thomas Pettigrew unwrapped a mummy at the Royal College of Surgeons. In his time, autopsies and operations took place in public and this unwrapping was just another public medical event.

Soon, even the pretence of medical research was lost. By now mummies were no longer medicinal but thrilling. A dinner host who could entertain an audience while unwrapping was rich enough to own an actual mummy.

The thrill of seeing dried flesh and bones appearing as bandages came off meant people flocked to these unwrappings, whether in a private home or the theatre of a learned society. Strong drink meantaudiences were loud and appreciative.

The mummy's curse

Mummy unwrapping parties ended as the 20th century began. The macabre thrills seemed in bad taste and the inevitable destruction of archaeological remains seemed regrettable.

Then the discovery of Tutankhamen's tomb fuelled a craze that shaped art deco design in everything from the motifs of doors in the Chrysler Building to the shape of clocks designed by Cartier. The sudden death in 1923 of Lord Carnarvon, sponsor of the Tutankhamen expedition, was from natural causes but soon attributed to a new superstition—"the mummy's curse".

Modern mummies

In 2016 Egyptologist John J. Johnston hosted the first public unwrapping of a mummy since 1908. Part art, part science, and part show, Johnston created a an immersive recreation of what it was like to be present at a Victorian unwrapping.

It was as tasteless as possible, with everything from the Bangles' Walk Like an Egyptian playing on loud speaker to the plying of attendees with straight gin.

The mummy was only an actor wrapped in bandages but the event was a heady sensory mix. The fact it took place at St Bart's Hospital in London was a modern reminder that mummies cross many realms of experience from the medical to the macabre.

Today, the black market of antiquity smuggling—including mummies—is worth about US$3 billion.

No serious archaeologist would unwrap a mummy and no physician suggest eating one. But the lure of the mummy remains strong. They are still for sale, still exploited, and still a commodity.

Source: https://phys.org

Rare Bronze Age artefacts dating back 3,400 years discovered by metal detectorist in North Wales

The two moulds used to cast axes during the Middle Bronze Age have now been declared treasure

The bronze mould valves found in Conwy in 2017 date back to the Middle Bronze Age, around 3,400 years ago (Image: Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales)

A pair of rare artefacts dating back around 3,400 years to the Middle Bronze Age have been declared treasure after they were uncovered in North Wales almost five years ago. The two bronze mould valves were used to cast palstaves (a kind of axe) during the Bronze Age.

They were discovered by George Borrill, from Llandudno Junction, while metal-detecting on rough pastureland in Conwy on August 12, 2017. Prior to Mr Borrill's find, only 17 such moulds had been found in the UK.

Mr Borrill reported his find to Dr Susie White, Finds Officer for the Portable Antiquities Scheme in Wales (PAS Cymru) and the find was subsequently reported as treasure by curatorial staff based at Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales. At an inquest held at Ruthin County Hall today (June 1), Kate Sutherland, assistant coroner for North Wales east and central, recorded the find as treasure.

The moulds are about eight inches in length and feature a single midrib decoration with a side-loop. The two mould valves, which date back to 1400-1275 BCE, once formed a matching pair, the two locking together – one a positive valve with projecting tenons and the other the negative valve with matching recesses.

The outer surfaces have raised rib and moulding decoration, each of a slightly differing design. Adam Gwilt, Principal Curator for Prehistory at Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales said: “This is a significant new archaeological find for Wales.

"Moulds such as these are quite rare across Britain. They offer us great insights into the bronze casting traditions operating in North Wales during the Middle Bronze Age.

"The growing evidence for moulds and palstave hoard finds in this area suggests that a range of bronze palstaves with midrib decorations were made here and were then exchanged and transported over long distances at this time, to their place of use. It is likely that the nearby Great Orme Bronze Age copper mines, some of the most important prehistoric mines in Europe and in their heyday during the Middle Bronze Age, provided the local source of copper for bronzesmiths.

"Tin from Cornwall was accessed, to mix with the molten copper to form these bronze artefacts. This matching pair of moulds appears to have been deliberately buried, rather than being recycled at the end of their lives, perhaps during a symbolic act of returning these powerful objects to their place of origin.”

Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales hopes to acquire this treasure find, following its independent valuation by the Treasure Valuation Committee.

10-Year-Old Metal Detectorist Unearths Rare 13th Century Seal Matrix

By Nataly S.

 10-year-old boy from Sutton-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire has joined the ranks of the UK’s most famous and successful metal detectors. While searching a field in Woodbridge, Suffolk with his father, George Henderson found a matrix of 13th-century medieval seals, a metal artifact that would be used to seal the seal and verify official documents.

George learned the art of metal detection from his dad Paul, who has been an avid practitioner of this fascinating hobby for the past 20 years. The two eager explorers were just 10 minutes into their Sutton-in-Ashfield hunt earlier this year, when the younger Mr. Henderson suddenly got a strong hit on his detector. George had to dig down about five inches (13 centimeters) to unearth the object, which he and his dad could tell was quite ancient based on its design and old-style Latin inscription.

What they pulled out of the ground was a small, oval-shaped seal, which would have been used to make distinctive identifying imprints on important documents.

The two detectorists didn’t realize at the time just how old the oval seal was, but experts were later able to verify that it had been manufactured in the 13th century. The seal’s Latin inscription revealed the truth, as it read the following:

Seal of the Priory and Convent of Butley, of Adam, Canon Regular.’

This inscription refers to, a religious house that was founded near Woodbridge in 1171. An individual named Adam served as the prior at Butley Priory house for 16 years, from 1219 to 1235. The seal matrix was designed to carry his official seal, and its age must be almost exactly 800 years old, give or take a few years.

In medieval times, it was common practice for government officials and religious authorities to add wax seals to important documents, to verify their authenticity. A seal matrix, or printing face, would be made with distinctive imagery representing the individual to whom it belonged, and that individual would add their seal as a representative of a particular administrative office or institution.

Prior Adam’s long-lost seal features an image of the Virgin Mary and her child, the baby Jesus. The priory was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary when it was opened in 1171, and remained so until the religious house closed for good in 1538.

This type of medieval seal is rarely found at organized archaeological excavations. The usual practice in medieval times was to have these metal seals melted down when they were worn out or no longer needed.

This particular seal matrix must have been somehow lost before it could meet this fate. It might have stayed lost and buried forever, if lucky young George Henderson hadn’t been out practicing his favorite hobby in the right place at the right time.

George Henderson Makes History

The 13th century copper-alloy seal matrix is undoubtedly a rare and historically significant item. George and his family ultimately decided to put it up for auction, and it was listed for sale by Hansons Auctioneers’ Historica on March 24. The expectations of the Henderson family were high, and those expectations were met as the seal matrix was sold for the hefty and impressive sum of £4,000 ($5,260). George will split the proceeds of the sale with the farmer who owned the field where the seal matrix was unearthed, as is required by law.

“The seal’s historical importance rather than value is what’s important to both me and George,” his dad Paul told the East Anglian Daily Times . “It’s the most exciting find either of us have ever made.”

Young George shared his father’s excitement at their unique discovery.

“I’m happy I discovered it,” he said succinctly, revealing himself to be a man of few words.

“George has been metal detecting on and off since the age of five but he doesn’t always come out with me. He’s found one or two interesting things over the years,” his proud father explained. “He knew the seal was special when he dug it up but he didn’t know what it was. I did. I knew it was a medieval seal matrix.”

“George was laid back about it at first,” Paul continued, “but, as the day wore on, people kept asking to look at it and he got more excited.”

At just 10-years-old, as of now, George Henderson is the youngest metal detectorist to ever make such an historically significant discovery in the United Kingdom. That is a distinction he may hold for quite some time.

Is the Phaistos Disc Fake? A Comparison With The Etruscan Disc of Magliano

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by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier discovered the Phaistos Disc in 1908. Since then, the disc has sparked scholarly discussions. Jerome Eisenberg, an art historian, is among those who think the disc is a fake. Shocking artifact or contemporary forgery?

The mysteries of the ancient world have long sparked the curiosity of historians and archaeologists, but alongside the quest for understanding lies the risk of deception. Among these potentially confounding pieces are the Phaistos Disc and the Disc of Magliano, both of which have stirred significant debate about their authenticity. Some, like Jerome M. Eisenberg, Ph.D., assert that these artifacts may not be as ancient as we believe. This article delves into the intriguing world of these enigmatic discs and the ongoing debates about their authenticity.

The Phaistos Disc: A Cretan Mystery

Phaistos Disc in now on display in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, Crete. Photo by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Unearthed in 1908 in the Minoan palace of Phaistos, located on the Greek island of Crete, the Phaistos Disc is an artifact that has mystified experts for over a century. It's a round clay disc about 15 centimeters in diameter, covered on both sides with a spiral of strange, stamped symbols. The symbols, 241 in total, represent 45 distinct signs, with everything from human figures and animals to abstract symbols, none of which match any known written language.

The disc is believed to date back to the second millennium BC, around 1700–1600 BC, during the middle or late Minoan Bronze Age. However, this dating has been a matter of speculation as it was inferred from the archaeological context rather than from the disc itself.

Controversially, Jerome M. Eisenberg, an expert in the detection of forgeries in ancient art, has suggested that the Phaistos Disc is a modern creation. He proposed that the disc was created by its finder, Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier. According to Eisenberg, Pernier might have been motivated by a desire for fame, or the rivalry between Italian and French archaeologists to discover significant Minoan artifacts.

The Disc of Magliano: An Etruscan Enigma

The Disc of Magliano, on the other hand, was discovered in Magliano, Tuscany, in 1882. It is a bronze artifact, around 10 cm in diameter, bearing inscriptions in Etruscan language arranged in two concentric spirals. The artifact, dated back to the late 6th or early 5th century BC, represents one of the longest known Etruscan inscriptions.

Unlike the Phaistos Disc, the language on the Disc of Magliano is known, but the text remains enigmatic due to the lack of an extensive understanding of Etruscan grammar and vocabulary. The authenticity of the Magliano disc is generally accepted, providing a fascinating contrast to the controversies surrounding the Phaistos disc.

Inscriptions are displayed in a spiral pattern toward the disc's center. It is one of the longest surviving manuscripts in the Etruscan language because it has over 70 words. According to one interpretation of the writing, it is the guidelines for presenting sacrifices to the deities Tnia, Maris, Calu, and Canthas.

The shape of the object is reminiscent of the famous Phaistos disk.

Comparisons and Controversies

Despite some similarities in form, the Phaistos disc and the disc of Magliano are fundamentally different. They were discovered in different regions, made of different materials, inscribed in different languages, and are from different periods. However, the enigmatic nature of both artifacts has made them subjects of fascination and controversy.

A significant reason why some argue that the Phaistos Disc is a forgery while the Magliano Disc is not lies in the circumstances of their discoveries. The Phaistos Disc was discovered during an official excavation by a known archaeologist, Luigi Pernier, who, according to Eisenberg, had the motive and opportunity to forge such an artifact. The Magliano Disc, meanwhile, was found by a farmer, and its inscriptions are in a known language, lending it more credibility.

Modern forgery or sensational artifact?

Jerome M. Eisenberg declares that the Phaistos disc is created by its “finder” Louis Pernier!

Archaeologists largely agree that the Phaistos Disc is genuine. The excavation records kept by Luigi Pernier are the foundation for the assumption of legitimacy. The later discovery of the Arkalochori Axe, which had glyphs that were similar but not identical, lends credence to this notion.

Two academics have suggested that the disc could be a 1908 fabrication or hoax. The Times said that thermoluminescence dating has never been used to determine the date of manufacturing. Robinson says that in his 2008 analysis, he does not support the forgery accusations but instead claims, "It is essential to perform a thermoluminescence test on the Phaistos Disc. It will either prove that new discoveries are worthwhile to look for or it will discourage academics from wasting their time."

The Mavro Spilio ring, a gold signet ring from Knossos discovered in 1926, has a linear A inscription that was created in a spiral-delimited field, much like the Phaistos Disc. The sole known counterpart to sign 21 (the "comb") of the Phaistos disc can be seen on a sealing discovered in 1955. This is taken into account as proof that the Phaistos Disc is an authentic Minoan artifact.

According to Jerome M. Eisenberg, Ph.D., who studies the issue of counterfeiting in ancient art, the disc was made by its discoverer, Louis Pernier!

Yet, why would Pernier pull off such a prank? Federico Halbherr, an Italian archaeologist who worked with him, conducted excavations in Gortyna in 1884. The earliest European Law Code, "The Big Inscription," was discovered by Halbherr on the city walls. He also discovered numerous other artifacts with ancient Greek writing from the early 5th century BC. This discovery made Halbherr very well known.

SIR ARTHUR EVANS

Painted by William Blake Richmond (1842–1921)

Along with other archaeologists from Italy, Pernier was conducting excavations on the Messara plain. He was employed by Phaistos at the start of the 20th century, in the year 1900. This was at the same time that Arthur Evans began excavating at Knossos, where he soon found a large number of clay tablets containing Linear A and B inscriptions. There were high hopes that Pernier would come to a similar conclusion. It is highly likely that he had not discovered any inscribed material by 1908.

Luigi Pernier

What could he possibly do to gain sufficient fame and glory to compete with Evans and Halbherr?

What could he possibly do to become famous and successful enough to rival Evans and Halbherr? What might he possibly find? The fabrication of the Phaistos Disc, a relic with unintelligible pictographic writing, was his quick solution. Italian archaeologist Pernier He must have been well acquainted with the Magliano Disc throughout his studies in Italy, as it was the most frequently discussed scientific topic in the 1890s. The disc discovered by Italian archaeologists in the late 1880s resembles the Phaistos Disc in many ways. With the writing spiraling inward in Etruscan, the entire design is virtually round. At the time, the Etruscan language was still untranslated. Only two discs of this "model" have ever been discovered in the entire world: the Phaistos and the Magliano!

Why not test the Phaistos disc?

It's a fair question to ask why, with all the controversies surrounding the Phaistos Disc, no definitive tests have been conducted to confirm its age. To begin with, thermoluminescence dating, a common method for dating ancient ceramic objects, could potentially provide an answer.

However, this method is not without complications. Firstly, it involves heating a small sample of the material, which could cause irreversible damage to such a unique artifact. Secondly, thermoluminescence dating has its limits; it can indicate whether an object was fired in antiquity or recently, but it can't pinpoint a specific century within the ancient period. Therefore, even if the test confirms the disc was fired in antiquity, it would not settle the debate about whether it belongs to the Minoan period.

Furthermore, since the disc was allegedly found in a pit along with other artifacts (pottery, clay sealings, etc.), even proving that it was created in antiquity wouldn't necessarily prove it was ’t a forgery. An unscrupulous forger could have inserted a newly-created disc into an ancient archaeological context, thereby making it seem as if the disc and the other objects in the pit were all from the same period.

Why not dispel rumors that the famous Phaistos disc is a fake by finding out how old it is? The guardian of the disc, the Herakleion Archaeological Museum in Crete, won't permit it. This is the brief response to this query. Because of its singularity, it is regarded as immovable.

It is true that thermoluminescent batting would result in the least amount of harm to the disc since it only calls for drilling a small hole or two on the edge that could afterwards be filled in to make it nearly undetectable.

The story of the Phaistos Disc and the Disc of Magliano illustrates the challenges faced by historians and archaeologists when it comes to establishing the authenticity of ancient artifacts. The former, embroiled in a century-long controversy, represents the complications of authenticating an artifact when its discovery circumstances and characteristics arouse suspicion. In contrast, the latter, accepted as a genuine artifact, still poses linguistic riddles for the scientific community.

Both discs, whether authentic or not, contribute to our understanding of the past and how we approach the study of history. The controversies surrounding them underscore the necessity of rigorous scientific investigation in archaeology and highlight the delicate interplay between fact, interpretation, and sometimes, deception, in our quest to unravel the secrets of the past.

The Nebra Sky Disk: Real or Fake?

The Nebra sky disc (German: Himmelsscheibe von Nebra) is a bronze disc of around 30 cm (12 in) diameter and a weight of 2.2 kg (4.9 lb), having a blue-green patina and inlaid with gold symbols. These symbols are interpreted generally as the Sun or full moon, a lunar crescent, and stars (including a cluster of seven stars interpreted as the Pleiades). Two golden arcs along the sides, interpreted to mark the angle between the solstices, were added later. A final addition was another arc at the bottom with internal parallel lines (of uncertain meaning, variously interpreted as a solar barge with numerous oars, the Milky Way.

The disc has been attributed to a site in present-day Germany near Nebra, Saxony-Anhalt, and was originally dated by archaeologists to c. 1600 BC, based on the provenance provided by the looters who found it. Researchers initially suggested the disc is an artefact from the Bronze Age Unetice culture, although a later dating to the Iron Age has also been proposed.

If its Bronze Age dating is accurate, the Nebra sky disc features the oldest concrete depiction of the cosmos yet known from anywhere in the world. In June 2013, it was included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register and termed "one of the most important archaeological finds of the twentieth century." If, however, the Iron Age dating is sustained, "that title could go to a star clock in a grave's wall painting found in Thebes, Egypt", which is dated to 1463 BC.

Replica of the find situation of the Nebra Sky Disc for the German exhibition Der geschmiedete Himmel (German "The forged sky").

Dating

The precise dating of the Nebra sky disc depended upon the dating of a number of Bronze Age weapons, which were offered for sale with the disc and said to be from the same site. These axes and swords can be dated typologically to the mid-second millennium BC. Radiocarbon dating of a birchbark particle found on one of the swords to between 1600 and 1560 BC confirmed this estimate. This corresponds to the date of burial, at which time the disc had likely been in existence for several generations.

The swords found with the disc.

However, research published in 2020 by archaeologists from Goethe University Frankfurt and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich casts doubt on this dating. After reevaluating prior research and the circumstances of the disc's discovery, the authors argue that the disc was likely not part of the cache of Bronze Age weapons, and therefore, cannot be dated with these artefacts. Instead they assert that the disc should be evaluated as an individual find. The authors contend it bears hallmarks of an Iron Age item, and they place its origins instead in the first millennium BC. This younger age, they argue, would significantly change the sometimes far-reaching cultural and historical conclusions that have been attributed to the disc.

Other associated finds: chisel, axeheads, bracelets.

Origin of the metals

According to an initial analysis of trace elements by x-ray fluorescence by E. Pernicka, then at the University of Freiberg, the copper originated at Bischofshofen in Austria, whilst the gold was thought to be from the Carpathian Mountains. A more recent analysis found that the gold used in the first development phase was from the River Carnon in Cornwall, United Kingdom. The tin present in the bronze was also of Cornish origin.

What is the Strange Temple-like Structure of Mt. Donon in France?

Mont Donon (the sacred mountain) is the highest peak in the northern Vosges. Many archaeological remains of a Gallo-Roman sanctuary have been found on and around the mountain top. They are now exhibited in the Musée archéologique de Strasbourg.

The summit, where the temple of Donon is erected, reaches 1,008 meters above sea level. It dominates the Bruche valley from almost 700 meters, which gives it the appearance of a very high peak with a trapezoidal profile, visible from the Hautes Vosges, where it has long been identified as the peak of the Vosges.

@franckcharles

A building imitating a Greco-Roman temple was erected at the top in 1869 to house various archaeological finds. It is the work of the architect Louis-Michel Boltz, and doctor Bédel, being the initiator. The temple in its rusticity presents an indisputable character. Four pillars ( monoliths of square section), two spans deep, support a heavy roof of stone slabs of the “load pile” type. A certain megalithic inspiration inspires this construction. This "temple" nevertheless remains the emblem of this place.

During the annexation of Alsace-Moselle in 1871, Bismarck obtained 1,000 hectares of forest from the territory of Raon-lès-Leau to secure control of the strategic summit. In 1919, during the Treaty of Versailles , this estate remained the property of the commune of Grandfontaine , to the chagrin of the commune of Meurthe-et-Moselle.

Set of stones forming a circle at the base of the climb to the temple.

Le Donon experienced early national and religious fame, with its archaeological remains, the reconstruction at the end of the Second Empire of a high Gallo-Roman temple, its numerous excavations including that of the university and Strasbourg, with Jean-Jacques Hatt , memorable of the year 1938. So much so that the highest point of the sandstone Vosges could only be the Donon, at least in school textbooks dealing with the French geography of eastern France, even after the return from Alsace- Lorraine.

On June 24, 1940, after the military operations that had taken place the previous week and the retreat of the French troops on the ground, the 279th infantry regiment positioned itself at the top of the Donon, which it made "an impregnable fortress", according to General Order No. 76 of the 43rd French Army Corps signed by General Lescanne.

Origin of 'Kievan Rus', the Big Northeastern European Federation of the 9th Century

Kievan Rus' (Old East Slavic: Роусь, romanized: Rusĭ, or роусьскаѧ землѧ, romanized: rusĭskaę zemlę, "Rus' land") was a loose federation in Eastern Europe and Northern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century. Encompassing a variety of polities and peoples, including East Slavic, Baltic, and Finnic, it was ruled by the Rurik dynasty, founded by the Varangian prince Rurik. The modern nations of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine all claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural ancestors, with Belarus and Russia deriving their names from it. At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, Kievan Rus' stretched from the White Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south and from the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the Taman Peninsula in the east, uniting the majority of East Slavic tribes.

The principalities of the later Kievan Rus (after the death of Yaroslav I in 1054).

Rurik of Ladoga (also Ryurik or Rorik; Old East Slavic: Рюрикъ Rjurikŭ, from Old Norse Hrøríkʀ; Belarusian: Рурык; Russian, Ukrainian: Рюрик; c. 824–879), according to the 12th-century Primary Chronicle, was a Varangian chieftain of the Rus' who in the year 862 was invited to reign in Ladoga or Novgorod. This legendary figure was considered by later rulers to be the founder of the Rurik dynasty, which ruled Ladoga, then early Novgorod, and subsequently the Kievan Rus' and its successor states, including the Kingdom of Ruthenia, the Principality of Tver, Grand Duchy of Vladimir, the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Novgorod Republic and the Tsardom of Russia, until the 17th century.

Rurik of Ladoga

Rurik was a Varangian chieftain of the Rus' who in the year 862 was invited to reign in Ladoga or Novgorod. This legendary figure was considered by later rulers to be the founder of the Rurik dynasty, which ruled Ladoga, then early Novgorod, and subsequently the Kievan Rus' and its successor states.

According to the Primary Chronicle, the first ruler to start uniting East Slavic lands into what would become Kievan Rus' was Prince Oleg (879–912). He extended his control from Novgorod south along the Dnieper river valley to protect trade from Khazar incursions from the east, and moved his capital to the more strategic Kiev. Sviatoslav I (943–972) achieved the first major expansion of Kievan Rus' territorial control, fighting a war of conquest against the Khazars. Vladimir the Great (980–1015) introduced Christianity with his own baptism and, by decree, extended it to all inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. Kievan Rus' reached its greatest extent under Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054); his sons assembled and issued its first written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda, shortly after his death.

An approximate ethno-linguistic map of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century: Five Volga Finnic groups of the Merya, Mari, Muromians, Meshchera and Mordvins are shown as surrounded by the Slavs to the west; the three Finnic groups of the Veps, Ests and Chuds, and Indo-European Balts to the northwest; the Permians to the northeast the (Turkic) Bulghars and Khazars to the southeast and south.

The state began to decline in the late 11th century, gradually disintegrating into various rival regional powers throughout the 12th century. It was further weakened by external factors, such as the decline of the Byzantine Empire, its major economic partner, and the accompanying diminution of trade routes through its territory. It finally fell to the Mongol invasion of the 1240s, though the Rurik dynasty would continue to rule parts of Rus' until the 14th century in the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia and until the 16th century after the establishment of the Tsardom of Russia.

Ship burial of a Rus' chieftain as described by the Arab traveler Ahmad ibn Fadlan, who visited North-Eastern Europe in the 10th century. By Henryk Siemiradzki (1883)

Prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century AD, the lands between the Baltic Sea and Black Sea were primarily populated by eastern Slavic tribes. In the northern region around Novgorod were the Ilmen Slavs and neighboring Krivichi, who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of the West Dvina, Dnieper, and Volga Rivers. To their north, in the Ladoga and Karelia regions, were the Finnic Chud tribe. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were the Poliane, a group of Slavicized tribes with Iranian origins, the Drevliane to the west of the Dnieper, and the Severiane to the east. To their north and east were the Vyatichi, and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farmers, giving way to steppelands populated by nomadic herdsmen.

Administering justice in Kievan Rus, by Ivan Bilibin.

Controversy persists over whether the Rus' were Varangians or Slavs, with the current scholarly consensus holding that they were an ancestrally Norse people that quickly assimilated into Slavic culture. This uncertainty is due largely to a paucity of contemporary sources. Attempts to address this question instead rely on archaeological evidence, the accounts of foreign observers, and legends and literature from centuries later. To some extent the controversy is related to the foundation myths of modern states in the region.

While Varangians were Norse traders and Vikings, some Russian and Ukrainian nationalist historians argue that the Rus' were themselves Slavs (see The Anti-Normanist debate). Normanist theories focus on the earliest written source for the East Slavs, the Primary Chronicle, which was produced in the 12th century. Nationalist accounts on the other hand have suggested that the Rus' were present before the arrival of the Varangians, noting that only a handful of Scandinavian words can be found in Russian and that Scandinavian names in the early chronicles were soon replaced by Slavic names.

The Invitation of the Varangians by Viktor Vasnetsov: Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor arrive at the lands of the Ilmen Slavs.

Nevertheless, the close connection between the Rus' and the Norse is confirmed both by extensive Scandinavian settlement in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine and by Slavic influences in the Swedish language. Considering the linguistic arguments mounted by nationalist scholars, if the proto-Rus' were Norse, they must have quickly become nativized, adopting Slavic languages and other cultural practices.

Ahmad ibn Fadlan, an Arab traveler during the 10th century, provided one of the earliest written descriptions of the Rus': "They are as tall as a date palm, blond and ruddy, so that they do not need to wear a tunic nor a cloak; rather the men among them wear garments that only cover half of his body and leaves one of his hands free." Liutprand of Cremona, who was twice an envoy to the Byzantine court (949 and 968), identifies the "Russi" with the Norse ("the Russi, whom we call Norsemen by another name") but explains the name as a Greek term referring to their physical traits ("A certain people made up of a part of the Norse, whom the Greeks call [...] the Russi on account of their physical features, we designate as Norsemen because of the location of their origin."). Leo the Deacon, a 10th-century Byzantine historian and chronicler, refers to the Rus' as "Scythians" and notes that they tended to adopt Greek rituals and customs. But 'Scythians' in Greek parlance is used predominantly as a generic term for nomads.