Ancient Greek inscription in the mountains of Tajikistan: traces of Alexander the Great in ancient Bactria?

Ancient Greek letters carved into a rock were found in a mountainous region of Tajikistan, Central Asia.

In particular, a message was written on a stone that, according to Nicholas Sims-Willions, an expert in the study of the Bactrian language, means "This is the... of the King of Kings, Vima Taktu". Due to the natural landscape of Tajikistan, archaeologists do not usually have the opportunity to discover new monuments. Since the surrounding area is inaccessible, local people offered to help archaeologists to collect information.

In 1932, a local shepherd found a basket of documents on Mug Mountain, which he brought to the archaeologists, who then learned that it was the first written text of the historical Sogdian language, which led to the discovery of the ancient settlement of Penjikend. Sogdiana (formerly Transoxiana) was a province of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Although the Sogdian states were never politically united, they were concentrated around the capital city of Samarkand.

How was the rock discovered?

Similar to the shepherd, a resident of a nearby village discovered the engraved rock in the mountains. Bobomulloev Bobomullo, a researcher at the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography of the National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, became interested in the news and took it upon himself to investigate it. After detailed examination, it turned out that the inscriptions were written in ancient script. It was located in the northernmost part of the gorge near the Almosis River. According to the man who found the inscription, there were other inscriptions on many different rocks, but due to avalanches, many of the inscriptions were damaged and fell into the mountains.

What was Bactriana and its history?

According to the World History Encyclopedia, Bactria is a historical region in Central Asia that was part of the Persian Empire. Historically, it was a unified region, but it was divided into what is now Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan. Even after the defeat of the Persian king Darius III, a self-appointed successor of Darius III named Bessus led the resistance against Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great finally conquered Bactria between 329 and 327 BC and held it until his death. After his death, it became part of the Seleucid Empire, which dominated most of the Middle East during the Hellenistic period. Bactria was famous for its gold. Darius I mentions Bactria as a supplier of gold to his imperial palace at Susa. Trade in gold originating from Siberia flourished.

What was the "Seisachtheia" regulation of debt that saved ancient Athens

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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In ancient Athens, Solon's legal regulation of debt was known as the Seisachtheia.

This was Solon's first legislation, but not, as some of the ancient authors claim, for the complete cancellation of debts, which Solonian laws prevented, but only for the relief of debtors beset by usurers.

To this end, he reduced the silver drachma by a quarter and a bit more, so that 100 new drachmas contained as much silver as 72.5 old ones. He reduced the debts of the poor to such an extent that it was said that he abolished mortgages on the lands, since this made it easier to repay the debts. However, he left the determination of the interest rate free and forbade the barbaric custom of "indebtedness on one's own body". He declared honorable those who had been convicted of dishonor by debt or for any other reason, except murder and tyranny.

The term comes from ancient Greek and is composed of "seio" (shake) and "achthos" (burden, debt). It essentially meant "to shake off the burdens".

Current regulation before the Seisachteia

Prior to Solon's prohibition of seisachtheia, debt bondage was in effect in Athens: a citizen who could not repay his creditors lost his freedom.

The legislation of Solon

Solon's legislative measures were very bold but also drastic. They were based on the principle of just inequality rather than absolute equality, trying to prevent unrest and the disintegration of the Athenian political community while maintaining social organization and the primacy of that organization in the province of power.

The Seisachtheia was among the reparation measures taken by Solon

Specifically, the existing debts of private individuals to private individuals and to the city were abolished; lending secured by the "body" (personal freedom) of the borrower and his family members was abolished; and those Athenians who had become slaves due to debts were freed. Athenians who had been sold abroad in the meantime were returned to the city.

It is known that Solon ended the dependence of the poor peasants in Attica with the "Seisachtheia". What is not known and remains controversial in research is the procedure by which he restored those who had fallen victim to the arbitrariness of the rich, precisely because there were no written provisions (Solon also says so in one of his poems).

The measure is sometimes associated with the dependent peasants who cultivated the land of the privileged with the agreement to give them 1/6 of the production instead of rent, while sometimes it is associated with all those who borrowed and cultivated the land of the rich and powerful with their personal freedom as a pledge.

The seisachtheia was not created to abolish slavery but to free slaves from their debts. Solon's reforms allowed for two exceptions: The guardian of an unmarried woman who had lost her virginity had the right to sell her into slavery, and a citizen could abandon an unwanted newborn.

Asclepius: The hero and god of medicine

The biography of Asclepius is indeed fictitious. Of course, we are not in a position to know the boundaries between myth and reality.

Whether, for example, a resurrection was some kind of epiphany or not So we could study the texts and nothing more.

So let us read what these texts say about Asclepius:

Asclepius (Latin: Aesculapius) is known to be both a hero and a god of medicine. He is the son of Apollo, but the myths surrounding his birth vary widely. Mostly—here we are specifically concerned with the version accepted by Pindar—it is said that Apollo fell in love with Coronis, the daughter of the Thessalian king Phlegyas, and left her pregnant; but when Coronis was expecting a child, she gave herself to the love of a mortal, Ischis, the son of Elatos.

Apollo learned of this transgression through a crow (or else through his gift of divination) and killed the unfaithful; at the moment when Coronis' body was placed on the funeral pyre and would soon burn, Apollo pulled the still-living child from her entrails. This is how Asclepius was born.

According to another version, to explain why Asclepius was the great god of Epidaurus in the Peloponnese, Phlegyas, a great robber, came to the land to explore its riches and study how he could become its master. He was accompanied by his daughter. During the journey, she was seduced by Apollo and gave birth to a son in the land of Epidaurus, at the foot of Mount Myrtios.

Then she abandoned her son. But a goat came to suckle the child and a dog to guard it. The shepherd Arestanas, who owned the goat and the dog, found the child and was dazzled by the light around it. He understood that there was a secret and did not dare to take the child, so it followed its divine destiny.

According to another version, the mother of Asclepius was Arsinoe, the daughter of Leucippus. This was the tradition of Messinia, which they tried to reconcile with the other ones, claiming that the child was the son of Arsinoe but raised by Koronis.

The number of people he brought up was significant

It is said that Asclepius' father entrusted him to the centaur Chiron, who taught him medicine. In a short time, Asclepius acquired great skills in this art. He even discovered a way to bring the dead back to life. Namely, he had taken from Athena the blood that had flowed from the veins of the Gorgon; while the veins of the left side spread a strong poison, the blood of the right side was healing, and Asclepius knew how to use it to bring the dead back to life.

The number of people he revived was considerable. They include Kapaneus, Lycurgus (probably in the war against Thebes, where two heroes of this name appear among the victims), Glaucus, the son of Minos, and the most frequently mentioned, Hippolytus, the son of Theseus. Zeus, seeing these revivals, feared that Asclepius would disturb the order of the world and struck him with lightning. To avenge Zeus, Apollo killed the Cyclops. After his death, Asclepius transformed into the constellation Ophiuchus.

Is Asclepius outside the mythical circle?

Some later accounts indicate that Asclepius participated in the Calydonian boar hunt and the Argonaut expedition. In general, however, Asclepius stands outside mythical circles.

Two children are attributed to him, the two physicians Podalirios and Mahaonas, who are already mentioned in the Iliad.

Later forms of the myth attribute to him a wife, Ipion, and daughters, Akeso, Iaso, Panakeia, Aigli, and Hygieia. The worship of Asclepius, attested at Trike in Thessaly, where it probably originated, established itself mainly at Epidaurus in the Peloponnese, where it developed into a veritable school of medicine, the applications of which, though based mainly on magic, nevertheless prepared the advent of a more scientific medicine. This art was practiced by the Asclepiads, or the descendants of Asclepius. The most famous of these is Hippocrates, whose family was associated with the god.

Common symbols of Asclepius were snakes coiled around a staff, as well as pine cones, laurel wreaths, and sometimes a goat or a dog!

The use of spear and sword by the ancient Greeks

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Greek hoplite sword was double-edged. Its blade was wider in the middle of its length, so the weight was concentrated at that point, and the devastating blow to the enemy was even more overwhelming.

The Greek sword was also used for a penetrating blow. The sword was an auxiliary weapon of the Greek hoplites, who usually used it when the spear broke or could not be used due to space limitations.

However, they were not inferior in sword fighting to spear fighting. Various scholars often claim that Roman legionaries in their heyday were better swordsmen than other peoples who did not favor the sword, such as the ancient Greeks.

It should be noted, however, that the Romans used the heavy "gladius" type sword (gladius italiensis and later the stronger gladius hispaniensis), which did not require any particular skill to wield.

The Romans took advantage of its weight and shape, which allowed to fully use this weight to deliver a devastating blow against the opponent and also to destroy his shield if it was not made of metal (which was usually the case with the opposing shields of Rome).

In contrast, Greek swords were relatively light, with the exception of the Kopida (or 'knife' or falcata, or falx, as it was called in the western Mediterranean) and some other types. This evidence shows that the Greeks used a special technique in handling the sword to injure or kill their opponent.

Moreover, this opponent was usually a Greek hoplite, and there was no sword that could have shattered his sturdy brass hoplite shield with clumsy blows. Moreover, the hoplite was well armored with a helmet and breastplate of various types.

The only way for the Greek hoplite to strike into the flesh of his opponent with his sword was to improve his skills in the use of this weapon.

In summary, the Romans simply favored the use of the sword more than the Greeks, but without being better swordsmen than the latter.

The Spartans used the classical Greek type of sword with an iron blade. During the 5th century BC, they steadily reduced the length of the blade and, by the end of the same century, developed it further into a purely Spartan type. The explanation for this lies in the warfare of the Spartan, who tried to get as close as possible to his opponent in close combat, and in this he was irresistible.

In the confines of the phalanx, a sword that retained its nighttime (penetrating) power and was close to the length of a knife was most ideal.

Athenian reliefs confirm the ancient writers' references to the Spartan short sword. These reliefs often depict Lacedaemonians carrying a short sword up to 30 cm long in the shape of a tree leaf (roughly like the tip of a hoplite spear). The only example of this type of sword was found during excavations on Crete and was originally part of a statue.

The short length of the Spartan sword has led scholars to believe that it was also used for penetrating strikes from the bottom up. This is confirmed by some depictions of wounded or downed Lacedaemonians holding this sword in their hands and aiming upward at the abdomen or groin of their standing opponent.

Soon the short sword spread throughout most of Greece, displacing the older types. There is another weapon mentioned in ancient sources as being used by the Spartans.

It is believed to have been a type of knife, and based on the way it was used, it seems very likely that it was crescent-shaped. If so, the blade belonged to the group of crescent-shaped swords used by various Mediterranean peoples.

The Athenian hoplites also used the common hoplite sword, but it seems that some used the Kopida, although it was a sword more suitable for cavalry since its use required an open space.

The Kopida was a sturdy, single-edged sword with which a single, well-delivered blow could maim an opponent and sever an arm or leg.

Sickle swords were used by several Mediterranean peoples (Iberians, Celtiberians, Greeks, Thracians, Etruscans, Lycians, Carians, Lydians, Phrygians, Dacians, and others). In the confines of an armed conflict, the sword could not be used effectively.

But it could be used effectively by the hoplites against Asiatic and Egyptian warriors, since the fight with the latter was not of the nature of a battle between hoplites, and it's usually rapid breaking of the line gave the former plenty of room to destroy them quickly with the deadly blows of the Kopida (after all, the defensive armament of the Asiatics and Egyptians was rudimentary or nonexistent).

In general, the Athenians and other Greek hoplites favored the Kopida more than the Spartans. But even among them, the typical short sword prevailed.

On some Athenian vase paintings from the 6th to 5th centuries BC, Athenian hoplites are depicted with a kind of curved sword (the so-called "Yatagani" type). This sword probably originated in Asia Minor, from where it entered the Greek arsenal of the time, but it's rare depiction shows that it did not become popular.

Rare archaeological find: Complete "Bible of the Dead" found in the desert of Sakkara

Recently, archaeologists announced the discovery of 4 untouched and sealed tombs and a mummy over 4,000 years old in the necropolis of Saqqara near Cairo.

Saqqara, the necropolis of Memphis, the ancient capital of Egypt, is known for the famous pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser and also includes the famous pyramids of Giza.

Among the priceless archaeological finds was a 16-meter-long intact papyrus containing excerpts from the ancient Egyptians' "Bible of the Dead."

The papyrus, which is more than 2,000years old, was found in a sarcophagus in a tomb south of the Pyramid of Djoser and is considered a complete "Bible".

It is the first complete papyrus to be discovered in 100 years and is already being translated into Arabic by scholars.

Scientists consider the discovery important because the hieroglyphs should give them even more insight into the burial customs of ancient Egyptian culture.

The necropolis of Saqqara, a little more than 15 kilometers south of the famous pyramids of Giza, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as is the Pyramid of Djoser, built around 2,700 BC by the architect Imhotep and considered one of the oldest monuments in the world.

Is the tomb of Alexander the Great in the Nabi Daniel Mosque?

It is the subject that stimulates the imagination, cultivates expectations and, of course, has managed not only to refute but also to ridicule quite a few archaeologists. According to Arabic tradition, the tomb of Alexander the Great is located in the Nebi Daniel Mosque. Scientists who let their imaginations run wild, fell prey to arbitrary assumptions, and completely ignored historical sources, searching in the most unlikely of places for the tomb of Alexander the Great have been misled in the worst of ways. And the great discovery of the Amphipolis monument leads to the revival of every possible version regarding where Alexander was eventually buried.

Certainly the tomb of Alexander the Great remains the... Holy Grail of archaeology. Most (and most serious) theories about the general's burial site come from Alexandria, Egypt, the city he founded. Alexandria is mentioned in historical sources while the magnificent mausoleum of Alexander in Alexandria was known. 

The Christian attack on Alexandria

One of the black pages in the city's history, however, was written in the late 4th century AD and possibly connected to Alexander. It is the great attack of the Christians under Patriarch Theophilus against the pagans, in which the Library of Alexandria, the Serapeion and the Museum were destroyed, while the famous "Mausoleum" was lost in the ruins. 

Alexandria, Kom el-Dikka Region 

Recent hypotheses include that of a sarcophagus in a crypt of an ancient Christian church in Alexandria, Egypt, attributed by Polish archaeologists and historians to Alexander. A masterpiece of architecture, the marble and gold mausoleum was found in the Kom el-Dikka area, in the crypt of an early Christian church in the heart of Alexandria, just 60 meters from the Nabi Daniel Mosque, where, according to Arabic tradition, the Nabi Daniel Mosque is the tomb of Alexander the Great and where excavations are already underway.

The tomb has been a place of pilgrimage for centuries. Famous visitors included Roman emperors such as Julius Caesar and Gaius Octavius, better known as Augustus, who is said to have placed flowers on the tomb, as well as a gold diadem on the mummified head of Alexander the Great. The last recorded visit to the tomb was by the Roman Emperor Caracalla - who had been an admirer of Alexander about a year before his assassination in 215 AD. The crystal sarcophagus discovered in the mausoleum contains 37 bones attributed to men. The team of Polish archaeologists and historians that made the discovery are examining the 37 bones - using the radiocarbon method and other tests - in the hope that they will be identified as Alexander.

Not only the crystal sarcophagus is affected. The sacking of the sarcophagus found during the riots that shook Alexandria under Aurelius around 270 BC also aimed at the bones, which are also broken. As for why the sarcophagus is made of crystal, a first explanation from the Polish team is that the original golden urn was stolen. And above all by the Ptolemaic king Parisaktos or Kokkis (107 - 68 BC). Broken vessels from the Ptolemaic and Roman periods have also been found at the site.

Tour guide Ambroise Schilizzi had claimed to have discovered Alexander's mummy in an underground chamber beneath the Mosque of Nabi Daniel. All this while looking through a tiny hole in the wooden door. The year is 1850. Fifteen years later, Heinrich Schliemann arrived in Alexandria to excavate the area around the mosque. He never received permission from the Egyptian authorities. 

Alexandria Roman Cemetery 

An alabaster tomb discovered in 1930 in the Alexandria Roman Cemetery has been attributed to Alexander by Italian archaeologist Achille Adriani. Investigations that followed in the years that followed yielded no results. 

Lebanon, Hills of Sidon 

Another "Alexander's tomb" had been discovered near the hills of Sidon in present-day Lebanon. This time... Indiana Jones was the painter and collector Osman Hamdi Bey. The sarcophagus is said to have been moved as a prominent exhibit to the Ottoman Empire Museum in Constantinople, where for a time it was an irresistible attraction for visitors. 

Venice, San Marco 

Yes, there was also this scenario, according to which the body of Alexander the Great was accidentally transported by two Venetian merchants who were convinced that it was the body of Saint Mark.

Egypt, Oasis of Shiva

Archaeologist Liana Soulvatzi had caused a "stir" in the mid-1990s when she "revealed" that Alexander the Great was buried in the Oasis of Shiva but the tomb was eventually four centuries older than Alexander's death. The story began in 1992 with the first monument he found, which she called the "Tomb of Alexander the Great" and continued in 1995 with the second monument, which she also found and, based on inscriptions, also called the "Tomb of Alexander the Great" negating the first.

In the sarcophagus of the pharaoh Nectanebo II

Another hypothesis is that the tomb was destroyed during the persecutions of Christians in Alexandria at the beginning of the 5th century, but also that the body of the great general was placed in the - empty - sarcophagus of Pharaoh Nectanebo II.

Uzbekistan, Eskandar

However, Uzbekistan also once proclaimed that it possessed the tomb of Alexander the Great, claiming that it was located under a canopy in the village of Iskender Zulkernai. The inhabitants of the village of Eskandar in Uzbekistan claimed that Alexander the Great was buried there (so did a reporter from Skopje who was there to report on the "discovery", which was presented in a Sun TV broadcast).

Amphipolis

Many would like the discovered funerary monument to be the general's tomb - although the Macedonian royal capital is Aiges and Amphipolis is not mentioned (or even hinted at) in the sources as a possible burial place of Alexander the Great.

This beautiful statue of god Apollo was found in the ancient city of Bursa

A statue of the god Apollo was found during excavations at the ancient city of Prusias ad Hypium in Duzce province in northwestern Turkey.

Excavation teams and archaeologists are continuing their research in the ancient city, located in the Konuralp region, with the permission of the General Directorate of Cultural Properties and Museums. During the last excavation period, which focused on the area in front of the stage of the ancient theater of the ancient city, numerous statues were discovered. Among them, the one of Apollo stands out due to its intact condition.

After the discovery, archaeologists contacted the Archaeological Museum of Constantinople to plan the next phase of the sculptures' presentation.

The ancient city of Prussia on the Hyppios was known in earlier times as "Hyppios" and "Kieros". It was occupied by Prussia I of Bithynia, and the inhabitants of Bithynia named the city in honor of their king.

However, Bithynia went bankrupt due to the lavish lifestyle of its citizens. The Bithynians bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans, which began the Latin influence on the city. The city was already architecturally rich, but it flourished even more under the Romans. It became known as Prusias ad Hypium.

The city then passed into the hands of the Byzantines and the Ottomans, respectively. During Ottoman rule, it was handed over by Osman Ghazi, the founder of the Empire, to Konuralp Bey, one of the first Turkish commanders involved in the establishment of the Empire. Thus, the area of the city received its present name Konuralp.

The significance of the Minoan civilization

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Since originating in Eurasia, modern man (Homo sapiens) has evolved in accordance with the climatic and geographic conditions of the regions where he was discovered. The skills of agriculture and the domestication of animals were discovered thanks to his growth in the Anatolian and Mesopotamian regions. The surrounding areas started to see this progress. The western shores of Asia Minor, Cyprus, the Aegean, Crete, Greece, the Italian peninsula, and other places formed a road of civilization for the agricultural revolution of the East.

All specialized scientists today acknowledge this course of development (anthropologists, archeologists, archaeobiologists, etc.). The "flow" of new cultural aspects like knowledge, techniques, instruments, terminologies, etc. was slower than it is now. The early inhabitants of the Greek region were caught up in it like a "'wave," since it was slow and appropriate for the tools and circumstances of the time. Clearly, it was the population that existed on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean before the later Greeks from the northeast arrived, which the Mycenaeans referred to as Pelasgians.

As for the Stone Age in Crete, according to the evidence so far, there is clear evidence of the presence and activity of modern man in the period between 6100 and 5700 BC (Knossos, pre-Ceramic period; see History of Crete by Detorakis). According to the findings, people of this period apparently knew how to cultivate cereals and kept goats, sheep, pigs, and cattle. That is, the knowledge of these activities was acquired and apparently came from the sea.

This means that the people of Crete had permanent residences and were engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry, and the sea. Since the distances to the Aegean islands were short, there was communication with the coasts of Asia Minor, Cyprus, and the Eastern Mediterranean.

As far as the tools of this period (Neolithic) are concerned, the main materials used were river stones, bones, and wood, and for the houses also bricks, stones, and wood. However, it is noted that besides the settlement sites, there are also activities (dwellings, etc.) in caves, as in Miamou, Eileithyia, and Akrotiri in Chania.

In general, since then, these conditions and the way of life have been improved and enriched with new methods and new tools (e.g., the ceramic wheel). In the following phases, and during 3000 BC, copper appeared, which means that a new development comes with growth in all areas. The next period is the one called the famous Minoan civilization, that is, the civilization of the people of Crete in the Bronze Age.

According to all the evidence available so far, Crete was inhabited at that time by modern people, of whom it is not known when and from where they came but who had contacts with the whole Aegean, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Western Asia, and Egypt. It is the main representative of the "Sea Peoples" as described by the Egyptians with their hieroglyphics.

Communication by sea, of course, requires suitable ships, experienced seamen, knowledge of geography, navigation, weather, and climate conditions, but most importantly, they acquired the ability to communicate with other cultures (in other languages) and to transport goods to and from Crete. In this whole process across the sea, they have acquired enormous knowledge about the development of the other civilizations of the region, and Egypt in particular, which they now not only carry back but also spread throughout the region.

All these activities, of course, lead to considerable wealth that lands on Crete and promotes the development of life and society in all areas. The archeological excavations of the last century brought to light the famous Minoan palaces, the famous mansions, the farmhouses, the religious caves, the summit sanctuaries, the harbors, and the tombs.

All these are elements of a civilization of the second millennium BC with incredibly advanced features in construction, architecture, pottery, painting, metallurgy, sculpture, social organization, legislation and law, the status of women, the family, the economy, agriculture, and animal husbandry. Among the most important for modern man were the first writings (hieroglyphics and Linear A', which could not be read accurately, and later Linear B', on clay tablets).

A miracle of social, economic, and cultural organization and development in such a distant time The most important element of Minoan civilization, however, was its extroversion, that is, the adoption of every new idea and development encountered by others with whom it had contacts and its simultaneous spread throughout the region. Since the main activity of the Minoans was maritime trade in the Mediterranean, in order to secure their rule in the region, they founded port facilities in many areas outside Crete, in the Cyclades, in Palestine, in the Italian peninsula, etc.

These places were trading bases and, at the same time, places of cultural diffusion and development. In short, the Minoans were the ones who acted as a significant influence on modern human technological and cultural development. There were other contemporary or earlier civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean, west Asia, and Egypt.

But all of these civilizations were introverted; they had to deal with each other and even conflict because they were land civilizations and communication was over land or rivers. The Egyptian advanced civilization was in Africa, and the Egyptians did not trade across the sea. This area was ruled by the Minoans.

They were the maritime rulers of the Bronze Age in the Eastern Mediterranean, the transporters of products, ideas, arts, and tools—that is, in principle, the owners of the knowledge of any innovation and its dissemination. But they applied every innovation in their lives in Crete—in architecture, in art, in agriculture, etc.

The palaces at Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia, and Zakros, when discovered by archeologists, left everyone who studies history and culture speechless. The architecture, the organization, the storerooms, the water supply, the drainage, the ventilation, the paintings, the frescoes, the ceramics, the theaters, the streets, the clothes of the men, but especially of the women, which were impressive, the tools, the ceremonies in the palaces, the bull pits, the vaulted tombs, the sanctuaries on the summits, and many others still impress those who come into contact with them, either in the palaces or in the museums, which are filled with works of incredible beauty and perfection.

This civilization of the Cretans of the Bronze Age, the Minoan, was the first European civilization on which was based the miracle of the Greek civilization of the next era, which in turn evolved into what ended in European and global culture through the Romans.

We can highlight some important elements that contributed to the development of this culture in this particular historical period as follows:

• Crete's location in the Eastern Mediterranean, but also its geography (large, long, narrow island, with extensive coasts, varied landscapes, large mountains, plains, many caves, etc.).

• The temperate and healthy climate of Crete after the last ice age, an area with four seasons, a very diverse flora (olives, cereals, vines, etc.).

• The characteristics and the psyche of the Cretans of that time (gentle character, restless spirit, industriousness, love of life and nature, etc.), characteristics that experts associate with dolichocephalism (the analyses of the skeletons found from that period assign the Minoans to this anthropological type), are, however, in all likelihood, elements reinforced and developed by the particular conditions of Crete (geographical position, proximity to others, climate, nature, social and cultural conditions, things that are, moreover, interconnected and mutually reinforcing).

These are the most important sites of Minoan Crete

First of all, we should look at what information was available about the Minoan civilization in history. In written form there was only the mention in Homer, about the hundred cities of Crete of the famous king Minos. But Homer was 800 years away from the time before the destruction of the palaces in Crete!

There were also traditions related to religion, to Zeus born and raised in the mountains of Crete, to King Minos, the Labyrinth, the Minotaur, Knossos, etc., which were revisited by many writers from ancient times to the Middle Ages and until the end of the 19th century.

But also in Crete there were traditions about places, toponyms and lost states, the sacred caves and mountains, as well as in many areas in the Aegean, in mainland Greece, in the Italian peninsula, in Sicily, there were places with the names "Minoan". All this preserved the myth of a glorious era in Crete, whose elements were dug out of the earth by explorers and conquerors and began to enrich collections and museums.

Today we know many things. Systematic excavations have been carried out by distinguished scientific archeologists and the map of Minoan, Mycenaean and Classical Crete has been created.

Specifically for Minoan Crete, we know that the most important cities and palaces are located mainly in central and eastern Crete. As criteria for any activity in Minoan Crete, we must consider the geography, the climate, the distances from the sea or from the plains, and the proximity to other outlying areas with settlements.

Key elements that influenced the choice of the location of a city in Crete were the following:

1. Distance from the coasts. The Mediterranean Sea continued to fill with water after the last ice age and the sea level rose, which meant that people avoided living near the coast at that time.

(Note: According to experts, the level of the Mediterranean Sea drops by up to a hundred meters during the Earth's ice ages, which means that with the end of this period, the sea level gradually rises sharply!)

2. The territory of Crete is located on the borders of the lithospheric plates of Africa and Eurasia and is regularly shaken by large and destructive earthquakes, with the result that, apart from temporary damage, the relief on the coasts changes. In other places there is an uplift and in others a subsidence of the coasts.

3. The geographical relief of Crete, especially with regard to the mountain massifs. The mountains of Crete played an important role in the selection of settlements. The long and narrow Crete has three major mountain massifs from east to west and about ten other smaller ones in between. Originally, the mountains were used as dwellings and places of worship, as there are hundreds of caves where the inhabitants of Crete used to stay (shepherds in winter, refugees in times of war). In some caves there are even churches, which are connected to the ancient sanctuaries. But in ancient times, the caves of Crete were not only inhabited and provided clean water, but were also used as mines, because veins of various metals had been discovered and exploited. So it was a matter of practicality for a city or a settlement to be located near a mountain and caves.

4. The proximity to the great civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt, combined with the fact that the activities in Greece and in the West in general were not important according to what we know so far.

Based on the above, the ancient Cretans chose to establish their settlements and cities in mountainous or semi-mountainous areas at altitudes between 200 and 400 meters in the northern part of the island and between 500 and 600 meters on the western and steep side.

The first modern settlers from the 6th or 5th millennium BC, who came from the sea, knew that all invaders would come the same way, and therefore they also avoided the coasts, but also the low plains for settlement. Even today, the villages in Crete are built in places far from the sea, at the roots of the mountains and even hidden from the sight of those who come from the sea (without good intentions).

In general, the rule was: far from the sea, not in a plain, but near a mountain or semi-mountain, near water sources!

But apart from this rule, there was another reason in Crete that influenced the spread of Minoan culture.

This reason was the inhomogeneity of the population between eastern and western Crete, combined with the geographical relief, with the consequence that the important cultural centers developed mainly in the central and eastern parts of the island, since it is very likely that the arrival of people and ideas in Crete was from the east.

Another important feature that influenced the development of people's activities in Crete over time is the climatic conditions. There is a significant difference in climate between eastern and western Crete. Due to the much higher amount of precipitation in western Crete, it is believed that the mountains there were green and very densely forested in ancient times, unlike eastern Crete, where the climate was drier and less humid.

From this it can be seen that the activities of the Minoans in eastern and central Crete are becoming more and more important.

However, systematic and careful excavations were not carried out at all of these sites. On the contrary, since ancient times and perhaps until recently, illegal excavations and looting were carried out in tombs, settlements, sanctuaries, etc., with the result that many important finds disappeared forever in foreign collections and museums without being evaluated and documenting their historical position.

It is one more reason to highlight the Minoan culture, its epoch and its importance for European and world culture by including it in the UNESCO protected monuments.

This will be another trigger to focus on strengthening agencies and structures to promote this very important era of Crete.

The Statue of Poseidon, Which Appears or Disappears Depending on the Sea Level

Poseidon's Dominion: Greek Mythology's Lasting Influence on the Canary Islands

Greece's rich history and mythology have always been a source of pride for its people, often celebrated for their profound impact on global culture and civilization. Among the many tales and deities from ancient Greece, Poseidon, the god of the sea, stands as a testament to this enduring legacy, even extending his influence as far as the Canary Islands in Spain.

On the sun-kissed shores of Melenara Beach, south of Las Palmas, an impressive statue of Poseidon rises from the sea, symbolizing the far-reaching grace and power of this ancient Greek god. This four-meter-high statue, crafted by the talented artist Luis Arencibia, is a remarkable tribute to Poseidon. Perched on a rock about 30 meters from the beach, the statue captures the essence of the god of the sea, rivers, and all bodies of water, holding his iconic trident with a commanding presence.

The statue of Poseidon is not only a testament to Greek mythology but also a captivating sight for visitors. When the sea is calm, the statue stands proudly, fully visible and awe-inspiring against the backdrop of the Atlantic Ocean. However, as the sea becomes turbulent, Poseidon's figure seemingly merges with the waves, creating the illusion that the god himself is approaching the shore. This dynamic interaction between the statue and the sea enhances its mythical allure, making it a unique and enchanting attraction for those who visit Melenara Beach.

The presence of Poseidon's statue in the Canary Islands is a vivid reminder of how Greek mythology continues to inspire and resonate across different cultures. Greece, often hailed as the cradle of civilization, has given birth to countless stories and myths that have transcended time and geography. The choice to honor Poseidon in Spain reflects a deep appreciation for the richness of Greek mythology and its impact on artistic expression.

Over the centuries, Greece has inspired artists worldwide, leading to the creation of various works that celebrate its mythology and heritage. The statue at Melenara Beach is a perfect example of this cross-cultural admiration, blending Spanish artistry with Greek mythological themes. It stands as a symbol of the interconnectedness of human cultures and the shared stories that bind us.

For those who visit the Canary Islands, the statue of Poseidon offers more than just a visual spectacle. It serves as a powerful reminder of the lasting influence of Greek mythology and the pride that Greeks feel for their storied past. This remarkable tribute to Poseidon not only enhances the beauty of Melenara Beach but also reinforces the timeless relevance of Greek culture in today's world.

In conclusion, the statue of Poseidon in the Canary Islands is a beautiful homage to Greek mythology and its enduring legacy. It illustrates how the myths and stories of ancient Greece continue to captivate and inspire people far beyond the borders of Greece itself. As Greece remains a beacon of cultural and historical pride, works like this statue ensure that its mythological heritage will be celebrated and revered for generations to come.

The most expensive Indian series about the conflict between Alexander the Great and Porus

The most expensive television series produced in India is titled "Porus". Porus was an Indian ruler who was defeated by Alexander the Great in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC, and the series focuses on the conflict between these two historical figures.

The series has won several television awards in India and other Asian countries, and is the most expensive production in the history of Indian television, as the filming took place in Malaysia and the budget was around 5 billion Indian rupees, which is about 70 million dollars...! The production company is called "Swastik", but this word is a sacred symbol of the sun for Indians and brings good luck and prosperity. It was also performed in many countries, such as America.

In the series, sometimes we follow the events closely, sometimes they are pure fiction, but they are superbly filmed, have impressive effects and beautiful actors, reminiscent of Bollywood films.

According to the script, M. Alexander's mother is a priestess and witch, and she  gives him the idea of founding a great empire. She also reveals to him that his father is Zeus. Together with his mother they murder Philip, Alexander becomes king of Macedonia and then shows military genius and expands his empire.

However, there are also many inaccuracies about Porus, as the creators of the series try to arouse the interest of Indian patriots by portraying him as the first "nationalist" leader, when in fact Porus was only a king of the Pauravas, one of the peoples of the Punjab, and there is no mention in the historical sources that he had the ambition to unite all Indians. In the end, Alexander the Great defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 B.C and released him because of his bravery.

However, it cannot be overlooked that the director and scriptwriter of the series, Siddharth Tewari, has brought the series closer to the historical reality as recorded in the ancient literary sources, despite the fictional and fantastic elements. The roles are played by famous artists both from Indian TV and Bollywood.

Watch the trailer of the series released online in Indian language:

Egyptian archaeologists discovered the tomb of a priest dating back more than 4,400 years in Saqqara

On 2018 Egyptian archaeologists discovered the tomb of a priest dating back more than 4,400 years in the pyramid complex of Saqqara south of the capital Cairo.

"Today we are announcing the last discovery of the year 2018, it's a new discovery, it's a private tomb," Antiquities Minister Khaled El Enany told an audience of invited guests on Saturday.

"It is exceptionally well preserved, coloured, with sculpture inside. It belongs to a high official priest ... [and] is more than 4,400 years old," he said.

The tomb belongs to Wahtye, a high priest who served during the fifth dynasty reign of King Neferirkare, the antiquities ministry said.

His tomb is decorated with scenes showing the royal priest alongside his mother, wife and other members of his family, the ministry said.

It also contains more than a dozen niches and 24 colourful statues of the cleric and members of his family, it said.

In recent years, Egypt has unveiled a string of new archaeological finds to international media and diplomats as it seeks to draw more visitors to the country. The country's vital tourism sector has been hit by years of political turmoil since the 2011 uprising against former president Hosni Mubarak.

In November 2018 archaeology officials announced the discovery in Saqqara of seven sarcophagi, some dating back more than 6,000 years, during excavation work started in April by the same archaeological mission.

Three of those tombs contained mummified cats and scarabs.

The Saqqara necropolis south of Cairo is home to the famous Djoser pyramid, a more than 4,600-year-old construction which dominates the site and was Egypt's first stone monument.

The tomb, built by the master architect Imhotep for the Pharoah Djoser, stood 62 metres tall originally and is considered the oldest building in the world built entirely of stone.

Experts Made An Incredible Discovery In Israel That Rewrites What We Know About Civilization

The bronze age city en esur rewrite history of southern levant.

On a dusty plain near the Mediterranean coast of Israel, a team of archaeologists are engaged in a race against time. Soon, a new road will transform this ancient landscape – burying its secrets for generations to come. But first, experts are searching the ground for relics from a bygone age, and what they find will change our understanding of civilization itself.

Archaeologists Open Undiscovered ancient Mummies Buried Under Notre Dame

In recent years, archaeologists have been working to uncover the secrets of the sarcophagi found beneath Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France. The sarcophagi, which contain the remains of several notable figures from the past, including bishops and kings, have been sealed for centuries.

The research into these tombs has revealed new information about the lives and deaths of these individuals, as well as provided insights into the history and architecture of Notre Dame itself.

The study also gives an idea of medieval France's cultural and religious practices. The discovery of these sarcophagi provides a rare glimpse into the past, shedding light on the history of one of the world's most famous landmarks.

In April 2019, a disaster occurred as one of the greatest buildings in Europe was swamped by flames, and the blazes scorched everything, leaving nothing behind except destroyed ruins. You might have already guessed what we're talking about.

The fire at the Paris Notre Dame Cathedral left France and the entire world heartbroken. But when archaeologists investigated the damage inflicted by the fire, they came across some unique things that had been hidden beneath the cathedral for centuries. And these discoveries reveal some shocking truths about history. So what have the archaeologists discovered? And what do these discoveries reveal?

Timur against Bayezid - Battle of Ankara 1402 Documentary

In the following video we will be analyzing the Battle of Ankara as Timur takes on the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I. This video also features the war against the Mamluks of Egypt. Enjoy!

Timeline of the Rulers of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire, a state that ruled a large area around the Eastern Mediterranean for over 600 years. In this video we will take a closer look at those men who have brought the empire to its greatness. The map shows the territory controlled by the ruler at the end of his reign. Enjoy!

Russia's First Invasion of Ukraine - Ukrainian History Documentary

In today’s video about Ukrainian history we will focus on how Ukraine lived between the three empires - Ottoman Sultanate, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the tsardom of Muscovy (Russia), and how Russia's first invasion of Ukraine which used the internal problems of the Cossack Hetmanate. Enjoy!

What Was the Diet of a Medieval Peasant?

In today's episode, we take a look at the various food groups and their position within the diet of an average medieval peasant! Enjoy!

Who was the Buddha?

In today’s video we will analyze who the Buddha was. Watch for more and enjoy!

Inside Mont Saint Michel - Medieval Village Normandy France

Mont Saint-Michel, this magical island topped with a medieval skyscraper has been a holy place since the year 708.

Climb its winding cobbled streets, pass age old gauntlets and eateries, all whilst surrounded by the vast sea inside this world heritage site that has stood on these shores for well over 1000 years…

Pilgrims first came to the mound to be hermits, attracted by the tides that rush in so fast, they could cross quickly and be alone here.

In the year 966, its first church opened.

After dark, its enchanting streets take on a whole new atmosphere, wherever you are on the mound, you can look up at its shinning beacon above.

During the Hundred Years War between England and France, the English besieged and blockaded Mont-Saint-Michel three times.

The French had built strong walls in the 13th century, that would enable it to withstand a 30-year long siege by the English.

In 1622 monks had to cope with the arrival of prisoners, imprisoned without trial.

The monks were driven from the abbey in 1790, but the prison wouldn’t close until 1863, when the monument was left in a state if severe dilapidation.

By 1876, the long process of restoration had began and two years later the causeway linking it to mainland was constructed, this was when visitor numbers really began to grow.