The "Parthenon of Macedonia" is finally being restored

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By the Archaeologist editor group

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The Palace of Aigai, in western Macedonia region of Greece, known today as Vergina, is considered not only the largest but, together with the Parthenon, the most important building of classical Greece.

The "Parthenon of Macedonia," as Professor Wolfram Hoepfner (architect and archaeologist) and one of the greatest scholars of ancient architecture have characterized it, is being resurrected. We are talking about the palace of Aigai, the largest building in ancient Greece and the place where the Ruler of the Greeks, Philip II, was assassinated and his son Alexander the Great was crowned king.

The cradle of ancient Macedonia, the city of Aigai (modern Vergina) is tucked away in northern Greece. As the first capital of the Macedonian kingdom and the birthplace of Alexander the Great, this ancient metropolis has a rich and compelling history. One of its most awe-inspiring and historically significant structures is the royal palace, a testament to the grandeur and sophistication of the Hellenistic period.

Read here about THE "POLYCENTRIC MUSEUM OF AIGAI"THE "POLYCENTRIC MUSEUM OF AIGAI", THE BIRTHPLACE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT

Source: Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports

Aigai: The Ancient Macedonian Metropolis

The ancient city of Aigai, recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, is the epitome of Macedonian culture and power. The name "Aigai" translates to "city of goats," according to ancient sources, symbolizing the pastoral origins of the Macedonians. From these humble beginnings, Aigai flourished, becoming the nucleus of the Macedonian kingdom in the early 7th century BCE.

Situated near the modern town of Vergina, Aigai was a city of immense political and cultural significance. It was the site where the Macedonian kings were traditionally crowned and where the legendary figure of Alexander the Great was born.

The archaeological remains found in Aigai consist of an extensive complex of royal tombs, sanctuaries, and other public buildings, interspersed with a dense network of private houses. These artifacts offer an intimate glimpse into the city's urban fabric and the daily lives of its inhabitants, both highborn and commoner. The royal tombs, in particular, are a treasure trove of artifacts that shed light on the wealth, power, and artistic achievements of the Macedonian kingdom.

Source: Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports

The Palace of Aigai (Vergina)

One of the crown jewels of Aigai is the royal palace, an architectural masterpiece that embodies the spirit of the Hellenistic age. Constructed during the reign of King Philip II, Alexander the Great's father, in the 4th century BCE, the palace is located on the city's hill, offering a commanding view of the surrounding landscape.

The palace complex is known for its innovative design and luxurious décor. It has a monumental faceted facade, an imposing peristyle courtyard, banquet halls, and a vast throne room – all signs of a prosperous and powerful kingdom. In fact, the palace's design inspired many Hellenistic palaces that followed, a testament to its architectural significance.

Source: Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports

The artistic depictions within the palace are also noteworthy. Frescoes and mosaics adorned the walls and floors, presenting intricate depictions of mythological scenes and offering a fascinating insight into the cultural and spiritual life of the Macedonians.

Archaeological evidence proves that the area was continuously inhabited from the Early Bronze Age (3rd Millennium BC), while in the Early Iron Age (11th–8th century BC), it became an important center, rich and densely populated.

The city reached its peak in the Archaic (7th–6th centuries BC) and Classical periods (5th–4th centuries), when it was the most important urban center in the region, the seat of the Macedonian kings, and the place where all the traditional sanctuaries were established.

Source: Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports

The palace of Aigai was designed for Philip by a clever architect—probably Pytheus, known for his contributions to the construction of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the development of urban planning and the theory of proportion.

The eastern wing of the palace of Aigai included a monumental entrance, the "Tholo" (probably a place of worship), and other rooms of unknown use. The south wing contained residential rooms as well as banquet halls decorated with mosaic floors. The reception rooms were located in the west wing. On the lower northern slope, a long, narrow terrace extended in front of the chambers. The masonry and architectural members were covered with a glossy, high-quality marble-like stucco.

Source: Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports

Thousands of roof tiles and bas-reliefs of exceptional quality, hundreds of square meters of floors covered with marble inlays and mosaics, some of which are exquisite works of art, extravagant pigments, bronzes, and all manner of luxurious materials were used to create a complex that would fulfill his ambitions as king.

The main elements of the structure include: the large square peristyle (row of columns surrounding a space within a building), which forms the heart of the building; the surrounding areas with their impressive propylon (the structure that forms the entrance to a building); and the stones (porticos, roofed colonnades) that form the facade and with which the propyla is enclosed. These are the fundamental elements of this innovative modern architectural project.

In the palace's surroundings, archaeologists have uncovered remains of other significant structures, such as the royal theater. It was here that Philip II was assassinated, setting the stage for his son, Alexander, to ascend the throne and embark on his world-conquering expeditions.

Source: Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports

Archaeological Discoveries and Significance

The discovery of the palace and the royal tombs of Aigai has reshaped our understanding of ancient Macedonia. The grandeur of the palace and the wealth of artifacts found in the tombs - including the golden larnax and the golden wreath, widely attributed to Philip II - attest to a highly sophisticated culture and a formidable kingdom.

The Palace of Aigai and the city itself provide essential evidence of the cultural and political power of ancient Macedonia. They not only served as a backdrop for historical events but also played a crucial role in shaping them.

The ongoing archaeological work in Aigai continues to unravel the city's complex history, contributing to a broader and deeper understanding of the Hellenistic period. Even today, the Palace of Aigai, resting silently amid the rolling hills of northern Greece, remains a powerful symbol of the grandeur and complexity of ancient Macedonia, a testament to a civilization that shaped the course of Western history.

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The Cypria: The Enigma of a Lost Greek Epic - Prelude to The Iliad

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Forgotten Prologue: Unraveling the Lost Epic Poem of Ancient Greek Literature

The world of ancient Greek literature is a vast tapestry woven with legends, heroic deeds, divine interventions, and the complexities of human nature. Among this grandiose literary landscape, one particular work that has intrigued scholars for centuries is "The Cypria". A lost epic poem, "The Cypria" was said to be part of the Epic Cycle, a collection of eight epics that narrated the entire mythological history from the creation of the Earth to the fall of Troy.

It was a component of the Epic Cycle, which used epic hexameter verse to recount the entire history of the Trojan War. The Iliad follows the account of the Cypria chronologically at the start of the Epic Cycle; it appears that the two were put together in reverse order. The poem was written in epic dactylic hexameters and contained eleven books of verse.

Authorship and Name

While the authorship of "The Cypria" is a matter of debate, it is generally attributed to Stasinus of Cyprus or, in some accounts, Homer himself. The name "Cypria" probably stems from the tradition of attributing it to Stasinus, who was from Cyprus. However, some ancient sources, such as the historian Proclus, claim that the poem was a work of Homer, given as a wedding gift to Stasinus. Others speculate it was the collective work of many poets over a span of time, like many ancient epics.

Plot and Structure

Although "The Cypria" itself is lost, what we know of its content comes from summary accounts and fragments quoted in other works. Based on the Chrestomathy of Proclus, a Byzantine scholar, "The Cypria" consisted of eleven books or songs and covered the events leading up to the Trojan War. What follows is a recounting of the circumstances that are known to have caused Achilles' rage, together with tales of the Cypria's known contents.

The story began with the judgment of Paris, a contest between the three most beautiful goddesses: Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, who were to be judged by the mortal Paris. Aphrodite won the contest by promising Paris the love of Helen, the most beautiful woman in the world. This led to Paris abducting Helen from her husband, Menelaus, king of Sparta, triggering the Trojan War.

"The Cypria" also covered other events leading up to the war, including the sacrifice of Iphigenia, the gathering of Achaean leaders at Aulis, and the first nine years of the war, concluding with the arrival of Achilles' ally Patroclus.

The poem tells the story of the Trojan War's beginnings and initial incidents. Zeus decides to rid the Earth of its population burden by starting a battle, a choice with well-known Mesopotamian parallels. The Seven begin their fight with Thebes.

At the Judgement of Paris between the gods Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite, Paris awards Aphrodite the prize for beauty, and as a prize is awarded Helen, wife of Menelaus. The Cypria chronicled the marriage of Peleus and Thetis.

Then, on Aphrodite's advice, Paris constructs his ships, Helenus tells him what will happen in the future, Aphrodite commands Aeneas to go with him, and Cassandra foretells the result. Menelaus, Castor, and Polydeuces, the sons of Tyndareus, entertain the Trojans in Lacedaemon before setting sail for Crete and directing Helen to provide for their every need. Aphrodite brings Helen and Paris together, and after an incident at Sidon, which Paris and his troops successfully storm, he takes her and her dowry back to his home of Troy.

Zeus grants Castor and Polydeuces immortality, which they share every other day, while they are caught stealing the cattle of Idas and Lynceus.

Menelaus is informed by Iris, and he returns with his brother Agamemnon to organize an expedition against Ilium. They started to gather Helen's previous suitors, who had taken a pledge to safeguard the rights of whoever got her hand. In a digression, Nestor tells Menelaus the tales of Oedipus, Heracles' madness, and Theseus and Ariadne, as well as how Epopeus was slain for seducing the daughter of Lycus. They recognize Odysseus' staged madness as they gather the leaders.

At Aulis, where the prophet Calchas forewarns the Greeks that the war will endure for ten years, the assembled chiefs make a foreboding sacrifice. They mistakenly loot the city of Teuthras in Mysia for Ilium when they arrive there; Telephus saves the city but is wounded by Achilles. Achilles docks at Skyros and weds Deidameia, the Lycomedes' daughter, before healing Telephus so that he can lead the fleet to Ilium after the storm has scattered it.

Agamemnon is persuaded by Calchas to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia to the goddess Artemis in order to appease her and secure safe passage for the ships after he offends her by killing a stag when the Achaeans have been gathered a second time at Aulis. Iphigeneia is drawn out as if to marry Achilles. But, Artemis snatches her away, replacing the animal on the altar with a deer, and takes her to the Tauri's homeland, where she becomes immortal.

Then they continue on to Tenedos, where Philoctetes is bitten by a snake and left behind in Lemnos while they are feasting. Achilles argues with Agamemnon again in this instance. The Trojans attempt a first landing at the Troad but are defeated, and Hector kills Protesilaus. The Trojans are then driven back by Achilles after killing Cycnus, the son of Poseidon. The Greeks bury their dead and send envoys to the Trojans to demand that Helen and the treasure be turned over. When the Trojans refused, they made an effort to attack the city before wreaking havoc on the surrounding countryside.

Aphrodite and Thetis arrange a meeting between Achilles and Helen because Achilles longs to see Helen. The Achaeans then want to go back home, but Achilles stops them. He then chases Aeneas' livestock away, sacks nearby cities, and kills Troilus. Out of the spoils, Achilles receives Briseis as a prize, and Agamemnon Chryseis from Patroclus when he transports Lycaon to Lemnos and sells him as a slave. The demise of Palamedes, Zeus' strategy to free the Trojans by severing Achilles from the Hellenic confederacy, and a list of the Trojan allies are then mentioned.

Relationship with the Iliad

"The Cypria" is often considered a prologue to Homer's "Iliad." While "The Iliad" jumps into the final year of the Trojan War without much backstory, "The Cypria" supplied this information, providing necessary context to the conflict. It’s noteworthy that the Trojan War, which spanned ten years, was covered in only two of the Epic Cycle's poems: "The Iliad" and "The Cypria".

Loss and Preservation

Like many ancient texts, "The Cypria" was lost to time. The reasons for this loss are not clear. The decline of the Byzantine Empire, the rise of Christianity which considered pagan texts heretical, and the simple decay and damage over time may all have contributed to the loss.

However, fragments and summaries of the poem have been preserved in the works of later Greek and Roman writers. The most significant of these is the aforementioned summary by Proclus. Quotations and references in other works also provide us with pieces of the poem, giving us an incomplete yet intriguing glimpse into this lost masterpiece.

"The Cypria", a lost epic poem of the ancient Greek literature, represents a significant piece of cultural heritage, providing us with insights into the Greek mythological worldview and the literary tradition of the time. While the poem itself is lost, the fragments and summaries that remain continue to captivate the minds of scholars and readers alike. Even in its fragmented state, "The Cypria" still manages to echo the grandeur of the bygone era and the timeless allure of the Trojan War narrative.

The Canal of Xerxes in Halkidiki was one of the most significant engineering feats of antiquity

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The canal that Xerxes created in 480 BC in order to circumvent Mount Athos is now only visible from a considerable height between Nea Roda and Tripiti. It had a maximum depth of 15 m, a maximum width of 30 m, and a length of around two kilometers. In a survey conducted in 2008 by archaeologists and other scientists, its precise position and proportions were established. Further archaeological investigations revealed that following Xerxes' usage of it, it was never again used, and over time it was abandoned and filled up.

One of the biggest technological achievements of antiquity is the Canal of Xerxes, which is located near Halkidiki. Herodotus claims that during the Medieval Wars, particularly in 480 BC, the Persian king Xerxes intended to take his massive fleet from Akantho to Thermi (then known as Thessaloniki), but avoided the perilous circumnavigation of Athon’s peninsula. And the reason for this is that he wished to prevent what happened to Mardonius' fleet a decade earlier, which was its destruction. In order to link the bay of Ierissos with the Gulf of Sigitikos, which was home to the already Persianized cities of Assa, Pylorus, Sigos, and Sarti, Xerxes gave the order to open the canal, which ran from what is now Nea Roda to Trypiti.

Disputations involving the canal

The canal was mentioned by both the renowned ancient historians Thucydides and Herodotus, who did in fact describe the canal's size in some detail. Despite this, historians in the recent and distant past have disagreed about the canal.

Demetrius Scypsios' contention that a diolcus existed here was the source of the most fundamental disagreement. He did this after observing that one end of the ancient canal had hard rock at it that made excavation at the time of opening impossible.

In general, some other authors agreed with the diolcus idea, much as it did in ancient Corinth. According to Herodotus' account, Xerxes gave Artachaei and Bouvaro the important technical work.

With an estimated height of about 2.5 meters and a stentorian voice, the fierce Achaemenid Artachaeus outclassed all Persians in stature. But just before the canal was completed, he became very ill and passed away, which Xerxes interpreted as a bad portent. In Akantho, Artahais was buried amid tremendous ceremony.

The canal is now underground. With the exception of a little valley in the middle of the isthmus, the area between the villages of Nea Roda and Trypiti has no similarity to the original huge edifice.

The canal's characteristics

The canal is 30 meters wide and 2 kilometers long. Estimates place its maximum depth at 15 meters. Due to subsidence at the site, it can be seen from a large distance.

British and Greek engineers conducted research in 2008 that demonstrated its precise position and dimensions and refuted the bilocus notion.

Investigations were conducted in the area, including the execution of geophysical surveys, drilling with sedimentological examination of their samples, and topographic mapping of the canal, particularly on the initiative of the British School of Archaeology.

The results of the seismic tomography and high-definition seismic reflection geophysical surveys provided detailed descriptions of the morphology and dimensions of the underground channel.

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The lack of building remnants nearby indicates that the canal was abandoned after it was opened, according to the evidence. The entire plan of Xerxes appears to have been an effort to dazzle and demonstrate strength to the people of Halkidiki at the time.

Ioulia Vokotopoulou, an archaeologist, claims that the canal was not only opened but actively utilized. At the Isthmus's narrowest point, a sizable ditch may be observed in some spots despite its natural embankment. After all, the beginning of the canal on the Nea Rodi beach is known as Provlakas. There in the sea are ancient fortifications.

Ancient road on the Isthmus of Corinth resurfaces

Peloponnese Region is providing funds for the 2,100,000 euro project, which is being implemented to protect the passage of the Ancient Diolkos in the area of Poseidonia, west of the Corinth canal.

An extremely important project

It is simple to understand the necessity and significance of this arrangement for the ancient Greeks' trade. It released the ships from the hazards associated with the then multiple-day round of the Peloponnese, particularly the passage of the stormy capes of Malea and Tainaros. Diolkos had to have been constructed at the beginning of the sixth century BC, or at the very latest, at the end of the seventh century BC. Periandros was the dictator in Corinth at the time.

Excavations

Before 1956, when excavations to uncover Diolkos started near the Isthmus of Corinth, different theories concerning its location and structure had been put forth by younger scholars. Diolkos, in Fraser's opinion, ought to resemble a "tramway." Based on Pausanias' report, it was based on the observation of a little portion that had been maintained close to the canal bridge. Another stretch of road in Peloponnesian land, at the mouth of the canal leading to the Corinthian Gulf, was also credited to Diolkos by Fowler (Corinth, vol. I, p. 50). But N. Verdelis' excavations unveiled a sizable portion of Diolkos and provided answers to issues raised by it.

The path

Initially, the precise path it took was identified: It began in Corinthiakos, which is now the location of the signal for ships traveling toward the canal. For a while, it was traveling eastward. It then moved once more toward the southeast before turning northeast. As described by Strabo, it continued until it reached the old Schinounda, which is now Kalamaki Corinthia, in the Saronic Gulf east of the canal.

IT stayed away from the ground's incline

Diolkos was moving in a crooked direction. Because of the terrain's twists and steepness, which reached an altitude of up to 90 meters, transporting ships would be very challenging. Commercial ships left their cargo in Cenchrees or Lechaion rather than transporting it loaded. The information provided by Pliny and Hesychius, who identified these two ports as the beginning and end of Diolkos, can only be understood in light of this interpretation.

From Battle to Beauty: The Tale of the Helepolis Siege Engine and Its Role in Building the Colossus of Rhodes

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Turning Swords into Plowshares: The incredible journey from Helepolis to the Colossus of Rhodes. The siege engine that transformed into one of the seven wonders of the world.

In the annals of ancient warfare, few inventions capture the imagination quite like the Helepolis, an imposing, mammoth siege tower that brought new dimensions to the art of siegecraft. Weighing an enormous 160 tons and requiring the combined strength of 3,400 men to move, this tapered tower played an instrumental role in the evolution of warfare. Yet, its most lasting legacy was born not from its formidable military prowess but from its ironic contribution to the creation of one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Colossus of Rhodes.

Design and Mechanism: The Making of a War Behemoth

The mobile siege tower's Greek name, Helepolis, translates to "Taker of Cities." The most well-known was that created by Polyidus of Thessaly during the Siege of Rhodes, and refined by Demetrius I of Macedon and Epimachus of Athens (305 BC). Diodorus Siculus, Vitruvius, Plutarch, and Athenaeus Mechanicus all provided descriptions of it.

Polyidus of Thessaly, who was often associated with the conception of the Helepolis, remains an enigmatic figure in the annals of military engineering. As a notable engineer and tactician in the service of Alexander the Great and Demetrius I of Macedon, Polyidus was credited with the invention of several prominent siege engines, including the Helepolis. His ingenious contributions to siege warfare laid the groundwork for later innovations and shaped the landscape of Hellenistic military strategy. Despite the ingenuity of his designs, it was through his unintended contribution to art and architecture through the repurposing of the abandoned Helepolis that Polyidus of Thessaly left a lasting, if ironic, legacy.

3D model and cross-section of Helepolis approximately as described in the wiki article Created in the TrueSpace 3 demo edition and GIMP.

Evan Mason own work

The Helepolis was not merely a large tower. It was an architectural marvel—an imposing iron-clad fortress on wheels, meticulously designed for both attack and defense. The outer surface of the tower was covered in iron plates, rendering three sides fireproof, a critical adaptation for surviving the flaming projectiles of the enemy. The interior was divided into multiple stories, housing soldiers equipped with light dart throwers designed to clear walls and heavy armaments providing the raw, destructive power necessary to break enemy defenses.

The Helepolis was essentially a massive, manually propelled tower that measured 65 feet (20 meters) in width and 130 feet (40 meters) in height on each side. It was supported by eight 15 feet (5 m) high, caster-equipped wheels that allowed for both lateral and straight movement. The interior was separated into floors that were joined by two wide flights of steps, one for climb and one for descent, and the three exposed sides were made fireproof with iron plates. The machine weighed 160 tons, and it took 3,400 men working in relays to move it. As 200 men turned a huge capstan that drove the wheels with a belt, the remaining 1,200 men pushed the machine forward. The casters allowed for lateral movement, allowing the entire apparatus to be maneuvered towards the intended attack location while maintaining the siege engines inside pointed towards the city walls and the machine's protective body in direct contact with the men advancing behind it.

Model of a Helepolis siege tower, Thessaloniki Science Center and Technology Museum

Gts-tg: Own work

Helepolis siege engine, 4th century BC, Greece (modeled after Demetrius Poliorcetes Helepolis siege tower). Thessaloniki Technology Museum. Design and construction by K. Kotsanas

The Helepolis was equipped with a terrifying array of heavy weapons, including two 180-lb (82 kg) catapults, one 60-lb (27 kg) catapult, three 60-lb catapults on the second floor, and two 30-lb (14 kg) catapults on each of the following five stories. The forward wall of the tower was perforated with openings for the missile launchers that were protected by automatically adjustable shutters and lined with skins that were filled with wool and seaweed to make them fireproof. Soldiers could easily clear the walls of defenders on each of the top two floors with the help of two lightweight dart throwers.

The Siege of Rhodes: The Helepolis Meets Its Match

Despite its formidable design, the Helepolis met its match during the Siege of Rhodes. According to Vitruvius, the people of Rhodes, under the ingenious guidance of Diognetus, managed to immobilize the colossal siege tower. Instead of countering iron with iron, they relied on the simple elements of water, mud, and sewage, channeling these onto the area of attack. The Helepolis, for all its ironclad majesty, became irretrievably stuck and was ultimately abandoned, marking a turning point in the siege.

The Rhodians were able to knock parts of the metal plates off the Helepolis as it was being moved toward the city, and Demetrius decided to remove it from the fight to prevent it from being set on fire.

The Birth of the Colossus: From War Machine to Iconic Monument

This event not only marked the lifting of the siege but also paved the way for the creation of one of the most iconic monuments in the ancient world.

The Helepolis and the other siege engines were abandoned after the siege failed, and the people of Rhodes used the materials and money to construct the Colossus of Rhodes, a statue of their patron god Helios that is now known as one of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. They also melted down their metal plating and sold abandoned weapons. Thus, from the failed engine of war, a symbol of peace and triumph was born.

In a different story provided by Vitruvius, the Rhodians pleaded with Diognetus, who had previously served as the town architect of Rhodes, to devise a strategy for capturing the Helepolis. He ordered the Rhodians to breach the city wall under cover of night in order to direct copious volumes of water, mud, and sewage into the region where the Helepolis was anticipated to launch an assault the following day. The tower was moved forward to the planned attack point by Diognetus and became trapped in the muck forever. When the siege was over, the Rhodians utilized the proceeds from the sale of Demetrius's abandoned siege engines to build the massive Colossus of Rhodes.

The Legacy of the Helepolis: Influence and Adaptation in Subsequent Ages

The Helepolis's story did not end with the Siege of Rhodes, however. The concept of the moving tower endured, and its name was adopted for similar siege engines in subsequent eras. Notably, Demetrius utilized a comparable machine in the successful siege of Thebes the following year. The term was also later used by the Byzantines to describe a different form of siege engine, further attesting to the enduring influence of the Helepolis on siege warfare.

Later siege engineers continued to refer to movable towers that were equipped with battering rams as well as spear and heavy stone hurling equipment as helepolis.

Even later, the traction trebuchet, a quite different type of siege engine, was referred to as a helepolis by the Byzantines. Theophylact Simocatta used this language for the first time in his description of the siege of Tiflis during the Byzantine-Sassanid War in 602–628.

A Symbol of Human Ingenuity

In the tale of the Helepolis, we find a unique intersection of war, innovation, and beauty. The iron giant that was built to conquer cities instead ended up contributing to the construction of a monument that has mesmerized humanity for centuries. It is a fitting testament to the transformative power of human ingenuity, reminding us that even instruments of destruction can play a role in the creation of wonders.

Interweaving Mythology and Metallurgical Developments: The Case of the Succession of the Five Ages of Man in Hesiod's 'Works and Days'

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The succession of the Five Human Generations in Hesiod's "Works and Days": Correspondence of the mythological narrative with the metallurgical developments in Greece and the wider area?

The history of metallurgy is directly linked to the evolution of man. The technological and cultural developments in Greek mainland and the wider area of southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean associated with metallurgy may have left their echo in the traditions and myths that survived until historical times, according to several modern scholars of ancient Greek literature. The transformation of precious metals into impressive objects of prestige, power, and religious symbolism made a special impression on prehistoric people, and it is quite logical that these innovations left their traces in timeless traditions. A mythological narrative that shows a remarkable temporal parallel with these developments is the succession of human genera in Hesiod's work, "Works and Days" (the Golden Age, the Silver Age, the Bronze Age, the Age of Heroes, and the Iron Age).

The ancient Greek poet Hesiod, in his work "Works and Days," presents us with a remarkable chronology of humanity's development. His account, rooted deeply in mythological narratives, describes the succession of five human generations. As intriguing as the narrative itself is the speculated correspondence of this progression with the metallurgical developments, This article will delve into the layers of Hesiod's anthropogonic myth, tracing the intricate connection with the era's technological advancements in metallurgy.

The Age of Gold

Hesiod's first age of man, the Golden Age, was an era of abundance, peace, and prosperity. Humans lived in harmony with the gods; their lives were filled with joy and devoid of toil. This age aligns with the Greek Neolithic era, a period marked by the crafting of gold artifacts. The use of gold in this epoch was mainly symbolic, signifying wealth, power, and divine favor, reflecting the harmony between gods and men in Hesiod's golden age.

The heyday of Balkan gold metallurgy occurred during the 5th millennium BC. According to the archaeological data, it is probably reflected in the time-compressed "golden age" of the "Golden Generation", the starting point of the human species according to Hesiod's myth (which, as we now know from natural anthropology, took place several million years ago).

Representation of the burials in the Varna necropolis in Bulgaria. Those Eneolithic burials have also offered a lot more than the precious artifacts found within them and discoveries relating to social hierarchies; the features of the graves have also provided key insights into the religious beliefs and complex funerary practices of this ancient civilization.

The Age of Silver

In the Silver Age, Hesiod's narrative darkens. Humans in this era lived as children for a hundred years, under the dominion of their mothers. When they grew up, their short-lived maturity was marked by strife and ignorance. The silver generation refused to worship the gods, resulting in Zeus destroying them.

Historically, the progression to the use of silver in the Aegean area marks a shift in technological and cultural development. The shift might parallel Hesiod's mythological narrative's movement towards strife and ignorance. The silver artifacts found from this era are often associated with burial practices, symbolizing a shift towards mortality's acknowledgment, reminiscent of the harsh punishment faced by Hesiod's silver generation.

Silversmithing, another metallurgical manifestation that extends chronologically to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, knew its heyday in the innovative Aegean with the highly symbolic ring-shaped periaptas, possibly capturing their meaning as a memory in the collective ideology of the people of that time of the era. This development seems to have been erased in the era of the "Silver Generation," which was destroyed for its impiety with the so-called Ogygus Flood, an old mythological story etched deep in the memory of humanity that is also compressed in time.

The Age of Bronze

The next era, that of the "Bronze Age", is undoubtedly associated with a new important innovation, that of the copper-tin alloy (bronze), which is concentrated in time from the 3rd millennium BC. and gave the conventional name to the research of the so-called "Bronze Age". According to the myth, Zeus created the people of this Generation from ashes. Their armor was forged from copper, as were their houses and tools.

The Bronze Age in Hesiod's sequence represents a time of warriors. These men, made from ash trees, were strong and formidable. They lived by the sword and ultimately fell by it. Their end was violent, and their passage to Hades was without honor.

Historically, the Bronze Age marked a significant technological breakthrough in metallurgy. The advent of bronze tools and weapons revolutionized societies, leading to the growth of trade networks and facilitating the rise of complex civilizations. Yet it was also an age marked by territorial conflicts and warfare, echoing the violent nature of Hesiod's Bronze Age men.

A hoard of bronze socketed axes from the Bronze Age was found in modern Germany. This was the top tool of the period and also seems to have been used as a store of value.

Wolfgang Sauber's own work

The Age of Heroes

This age, unique to Hesiod's narrative, is an intermediary period, the age of heroes and demigods. These individuals were nobler and more righteous, living in the time of legendary heroic exploits. This era doesn't have a direct metallurgical association but might symbolize a period of cultural and social transition, marked by the Homeric tales' heroic deeds.

The "Age of Heroes" is the only generation that does not correspond to any metal. It is also the only one more brilliant than the generation it succeeds. To this generation belonged the so-called Heroes of mythology, such as the Heroes of the Homeric Epics, the Argonauts, Theseus, and others. Its identification with the Bronze Age is also logical. According to experts, this generation of people summarizes a long memory horizon of past human achievements that do not necessarily have a chronological sequence between them.

The Age of Iron

The Iron Age, according to Hesiod, is the current and last generation of men. It is a time of toil, strife, and decay, where virtue is rare and injustice prevails. This pessimistic portrayal reflects the turmoil and upheavals during the Greek Dark Ages, when iron started being widely used. Iron, being common and prone to rust, can symbolize the deterioration of moral values and the hardship of life during this time.

Hesiod, like all his contemporaries, belongs to the "Iron Generation". People of this generation are also hardy but live a sad existence full of toil, drudgery, and misery without any moral principle. During this generation, Pygmy Law applies. Babies will be born with gray hair, and the gods will have completely abandoned humanity. In archaeology, the Iron Age refers to that period of history when people used iron to make tools and weapons. The adoption of this material coincided with other changes in past societies in terms of cultural methods, religious beliefs, and artistic style, which affected the economic, social, and possibly spiritual development of the era.

An exhibit of metal tools and weapons (likely votive deposits) found in the gravel pits around the River Sile is on display in the Venice National Archaeological Museum, a museum in San Marco, Venice.

Own work by the original uploader, Author Ethan Doyle White

The mythical succession of the five generations in Hesiod's "Works and Days" presents a remarkable parallel to the metallurgical advancements on the Greek mainland and in the wider region. The narrative can be seen as an allegorical representation of the socio-cultural transformations during these periods. However, one must remember that while the similarities are compelling, the allegory is not an exact historical account. It instead shows how ancient Greeks may have conceptualized and rationalized their past, drawing from the material culture they knew and the mythological narratives they believed in.

• Information derived from the book of Theodoros G. Giannopoulos, ‘The Greeks: Whence and When? Crete University Press, 2012

Read here about the book

Antikythera Shipwreck: Fresh archaeological treasures were uncovered during investigation

This year's "Return to Antikythera" program investigation in the marine area of the wreck of Antikythera highlighted fresh archaeological discoveries, such as tiny pieces of sculpture and early Byzantine vessel fragments, while revealing new details about the condition of preservation of the ship's hull.

The third phase of the five-year "Return to Antikythera" study program (2021-2025) took place from May 19 to June 18, 2023. Divers, seabed technicians, diving archaeologists, and scientists from various fields, including geologists, chemists, and physicists, all participated in the research project. The primary objective of this year's research was to investigate new areas of the wreck while also performing a stratigraphic investigation of it and its cargo. It should be highlighted that the research changed focus from finding and recovering artifacts for the sake of their conservation, protection, and upcoming exhibition to resolving issues that had previously occurred.

The seabed's downward morphology and the size of the ship's sinking area prevented a stratigraphic description of the wreck's condition until recently. The stratigraphic evidence that surfaced this year revealed fresh information about the state of preservation of the ship's hull and improved our knowledge of both its path and the circumstances of its sinking.

Photo: Greek Ministry of Culture

In the year 2022, huge rocks were moved carefully at a depth of 43 to 46 meters, and marble objects were lifted, including the base of a statue and the head of a Hercules, which appears to belong to the Farnese headless marble statue of Hercules of the National Archaeological Museum that had been raised in 1901 by the Symia spongers. This made excavation work in the eastern part of the wreck extremely difficult.

This year, a section of the size (2x2 m) was finished in accordance with the stratigraphic evidence, and the following was discovered: Early discoveries included human remains, potentially from multiple shipwrecks, as well as a variety of other items typical of a shipwreck, including pieces of glass and clay pots as well as numerous nails coated in wood. Little fragments of sculpture also surfaced during the same period. The first could be caused by a comb or a beard, while the second is still unidentified. The discovery of some early Byzantine vessel fragments, whose existence concerned the experts, is a fascinating fact that confirms the idea that this marine region served as a shipping route for ships over the ages. The discovery within a portion of a thick concretion layer, which seals this year's investigation,

Photo: Greek Ministry of Culture

A digital and three-dimensional impression was created throughout the inquiry. A database with Geographical Information System (GIS) data has been created that contains digital representations of all archaeological discoveries. All discoveries have been entered in this database, starting with those made between 1900 and 1901. In order to support the research, a field analysis laboratory equipped with tools for micromorphological field observations was built on the island.

Under the joint direction of Lorenz E. Baumer, a professor of classical archeology at the University of Geneva, and current archaeologist Angeliki G. Simosi, Director of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Piraeus and the Islands, the Swiss Archaeological School in Greece is conducting underwater research in Antikythera. The Ephorate of Marine Antiquities supervises the research under the direction of diving architects Aikaterinis Tagonidou and Athena Patsourou.

Due to his vast expertise in challenging operations, Vice Admiral (retired) Alexandros Palatianos was chosen to be in charge of the investigation's smooth operation, while University of Geneva scholar Alexandros Sotiriou was chosen to serve as the investigation's field director.

Photo: Greek Ministry of Culture

The team also includes eight divers from the Coast Guard's Underwater Missions Unit (Specialized Diving Team), diving archaeologists Orestis Manousos and Isaac Ogloblin, seabed technicians Nikos Giannoulakis, Charalambos Mitrou, and Dimitris Romios, and diving historians Orestis Manousos and Isaac Ogloblin.

While the on-site workshop was organized by Isaac Ogloblin (University of Haifa), with the participation of professors Maria Louloudis and Yiannis Deligiannakis (University of Ioannina), and with the support of Yiannis B. Itsaki, Patrizia Birchler-Emery and Timothy Pönitz (University of Geneva) handled the documentation of the archaeological finds, the creation of the 3D models, and the updating of the GIS (University of Geneva and Nereus Research Foundation). The Natural History Museum of Crete's geologist, Charalambos Fasoulas, traveled to Antikythera to investigate the geological information on the crash site.

Photo: Greek Ministry of Culture

The Aikaterinis Laskaridis Foundation, Swiss watchmaker Hublot, and the Nereus Research Foundation all contribute to the research program, while Cosmote handles the communications.

The mayor of Kythira, Efstratios Charchalakis, deserves special recognition for his unwavering support as well as for the kind hospitality shown to the last few people of Antikythira.

The S.A. of the President of the Republic, Katerina Sakellaropoulou, oversees the research program.

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The Brazen Bull: A Cruel Instrument of Ancient Greek Torture and Execution

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Brazen Bull, also known as the Sicilian Bull or the Bronze Bull, is one of the most brutal, terrifying, and well-documented torture devices from antiquity. Crafted in the socio-political crucible of Ancient Greece, the Brazen Bull was designed as a testament to human ingenuity in the creation of new forms of cruelty and punishment. Though its existence is steeped in historical debate and its use is associated with tales of horror and inhumanity, there's no denying the chilling impact of its story on our understanding of human history.

Origins and Design

The Brazen Bull was allegedly created by Perillos of Athens, a bronze worker in the 6th century BCE, and introduced to Phalaris, the tyrant of Akragas, a Greek city in Sicily. Its design was a masterstroke of ancient artisanship, a life-sized bull cast entirely in bronze with a door on the side for the victim to be placed inside. It was hollow, allowing for a human being to be forced inside, and it was designed in such a way that, when a fire was lit beneath it, the Bull would heat up, slowly roasting the person inside alive.

The contraption also had an acoustic apparatus that converted the victim's screams into the sounds of a bellowing bull. The Bull's mouth was engineered in such a way that it served as a sort of resonating system. The agonized cries of the person inside were transformed into the bellowing of an infuriated bull, providing a grimly ironic, sonic spectacle for the onlookers. This chilling feature was both a demonstration of acoustic principles and a horrifying embellishment of the punishment.

Phalaris and the Brazen Bull

Phalaris, known for his savagery and cruelty, ruled Akragas from 570 to 554 BCE. The bull was created at his request, designed to make execution a public spectacle that would instill fear and compliance among his subjects. However, the tyrant's cruel sense of irony was brought to the fore when he turned the Bull on its inventor. According to the story, Perillos proposed the Brazen Bull to Phalaris, promising that the screams of the slowly roasted victims inside would sound like the bellowing of a bull. Intrigued, Phalaris ordered Perillos to climb inside to demonstrate the acoustic properties. Once Perillos was inside, Phalaris locked the door and lit a fire underneath, effectively roasting Perillos alive. Thus, the first victim of the Brazen Bull was its creator himself.

Pierre Woeiriot, The Brazen Bull of Phalarus

The Bull in Historical Accounts

The story of the Brazen Bull is mainly known from the writings of ancient historians. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian from the 1st century BCE, is the earliest source who detailed the story of Phalaris and the Brazen Bull. His writings form the basis of our understanding of the Bull, its creation, and the tragic end of its creator.

Another source is Pindar, a Greek lyric poet, who briefly mentions Phalaris in one of his odes and refers to a "copper-bellowing bull." Lucian, a rhetorician and satirist from the 2nd century CE, also mentions the Bull and Phalaris' cruel reign in his writings.

Despite these mentions, the authenticity of the Bull remains a topic of debate among historians, with some arguing that the device may be more legend than reality, a gruesome tale embellished over centuries.

The Brazen Bull in Later History

The tales of the Bull didn't end with Phalaris or Perillos. Stories tell us that the Bull was taken by the Carthaginians when they sacked Akragas in 406 BCE, and later it was captured by the Romans when they conquered Carthage. It's said that the Bull was eventually destroyed, although no archaeological evidence supports these claims.

The concept of the Brazen Bull resurfaced during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period in Europe. Some versions of the iron maiden, an alleged torture device consisting of an iron cabinet with a hinged front and spike-covered interior, reflect a similar principle as the Bull. However, these devices, like the Bull itself, exist on the blurry line between historical fact and folklore, and their use in actual torture or execution is a subject of ongoing debate.

Legacy and Cultural Impact

The Brazen Bull has left a strong imprint on popular culture. It serves as a potent symbol of human cruelty and a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked power. Over time, the Bull has been referenced in literature, film, and television, usually as a means of illustrating extreme forms of punishment or tyranny.

One such instance is the Thomas Harris novel, "Hannibal Rising," where the titular character is seen using a miniature model of the Brazen Bull to exact revenge on a war criminal. In the 2011 film "Immortals," a similar device is used, reflecting the terror that the Bull continues to evoke.

The Brazen Bull, despite its disputed historical authenticity, continues to serve as a grim reminder of the depths of human cruelty. Its existence—real or fictional—stands testament to the lengths to which systems of power and control can dehumanize individuals, using terror as a tool for maintaining authority. As we explore the intricate, often grim tapestry of human history, the story of the Brazen Bull underscores the essential need for humanity, compassion, and justice in our societies.

The Ancient Greek Myth of Soulmates: How We Became Human

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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A Comparative Analysis of Greek Mythology and Biblical Narratives

The notion of a soulmate, a person with whom one forms an unbreakable bond, transcends time and culture, permeating the hearts and minds of individuals across the globe. The belief in this powerful concept is deeply rooted in ancient traditions, prominent among which are the ancient Greek myths and the Judeo-Christian narratives. This article will delve into the parallels between these two significant narratives, namely the Greek myth of Aristophanes and the Biblical story of Adam and Eve.

Aristophanes' Speech in Plato's Symposium: The Greek Myth of Soulmates

Humans were born with two pairs of legs and arms with two faces sprouting from each side of the head. | Photo Credits: Elligold

According to Plato's "Symposium," Aristophanes, the comic playwright of ancient Athens, explained the origin of humanity and the concept of soulmates. In the myth, the first humans were spherical beings, with two sets of human limbs, two faces on opposing sides of a head with two necks, and three genders: male, female, and androgynous, which in Greek literally means "man-woman." The androgynous had both male and female genitalia, while each gender had two sets of genitalia. Males were the children of the Sun, while Women were the children of the Earth. This had something to do with the gender of humans. But androgynous were offspring of the Moon, conceived from the union of the Sun and the earth.

Zeus, the King of the Gods, split these original beings into two as punishment for their hubris, resulting in the humans we are familiar with today. This violent act of separation left humans with a perpetual longing to reunite with their other halves. This yearning, Aristophanes suggests, is what we now refer to as the search for our soulmate.

There was a time when people were extremely strong, brave, and courageous creatures who even dared to threaten the Gods. They made threats to overthrow them, establish themselves as the new gods, and govern in their place. The Gods were forced to respond, and they thought about how to handle the threat posed by humanity as well as what had to be done to bring harmony and balance back into the universe.

Zeus punished man by dividing him into two halves. | Photo Credits: Dreamstime

They considered eradicating all humankind, engaging in combat with them, and killing them with lightning, as they had done with the Titans. Nevertheless, if humanity disappeared, there would also be an end to human sacrifices to the Gods, which was an idea that the Gods did not find at all amusing.

Zeus therefore devised a different solution. The humans would be split in half as a form of retribution for their arrogance and conceit. They would double the human population, which would double the amount of tribute that humans would have to pay to them, in addition to the misery that would result from this. And when they did, all of the people split in half.

These new creatures were wallowing in utter despair, saturated in their suffering and anguish. They were so depressed that they didn't care if they died and went for days without drinking or eating.

Apollo, the god of music, prophecy, healing, and light, could not bear to see them in this state. In order to spare them, he stitched them back together, rebuilt their bodies, and only left the navel as a trace of their former selves. Therefore, humans evolved from being creatures with two faces and two sexes and eight limbs to beings with one face and one sex and two arms and legs. And they had an unquenchable desire for their soul and physical counterpart.

Their soul would want for their soulmate, the other half of their soul, to be entire, just as their physical nature would sense a burning need to be completed by the physical nature of the other sex. The myth further states that when these two halves come together, there will be a silent comprehension of one another, a sense of being connected and being in harmony with one another, and there will be no greater bliss than that.

Imagery describes humans eagerly looking for their soulmates after being separated. Photo Credits: Pinterest

The Creation and Separation of Adam and Eve

The idea that God created androgynous souls—souls that are both male and female—remains prevalent in Theosophy even today. According to other ideas, the souls' division into the two genders may have resulted from either their "separation from God" or the karma they accrued during their time on Earth. In some Theosophical schools, it is taught that after many reincarnations in this world, each soul's half searches for the other. The two halves will unite once more in oneness and return to the Ultimate once their karmic debts have been satisfied and they have been set free.

Genesis, the first book of the Bible, narrates the creation of the world and its first human inhabitants—Adam and Eve. According to the account, God created Adam, the first man, out of the dust of the ground. He was alone, the sole human in the divine blueprint of the Earth. Sensing Adam's loneliness, God decided to make a helper suitable for him.

God caused Adam to fall into a deep sleep, took one of his ribs, and fashioned Eve. This narrative underscores Eve as not merely a separate being but an intrinsic part of Adam, created from his bones and flesh. The implication is profound: Eve was not a distinct entity but a division of a unified whole—paralleling the concept of the soulmate in Greek mythology.

Parallels Between the Two Narratives

Despite the cultural and temporal differences between these narratives, their core themes share fascinating parallels, underscoring the universal longing for connection and unity.

The first parallel can be seen in the nature of separation in both stories. In each case, the separation is inflicted by a higher power—Zeus in Aristophanes' narrative and God in the Genesis account. This introduces the theme of divine intervention in human affairs, emphasizing the gods' role in shaping human destiny.

Secondly, both narratives depict the separation as a form of punishment or remedy for a problem, resulting in a lifelong yearning for reunification. This longing is a driving force that influences human behavior and relationships, instilling a ceaseless quest for wholeness through the discovery of one's "other half."

Lastly, both narratives underscore the concept of unity and complementarity between the separated entities. The Bible account depicts Eve as 'bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh,' indicating her innate connection to Adam. Similarly, the Aristophanic humans sought their other halves to restore their original unified state.

The Greek myth of soulmates and the biblical story of Adam and Eve provide profound insights into the human longing for connection, unity, and completion. While they originate from different cultural contexts, these narratives intersect in their depiction of the separation of original unified entities into halves and the perpetual desire for reunification.

These timeless narratives speak to the intrinsic human yearning for connection, suggesting that the search for a soulmate is more than just a romantic endeavor—it's a spiritual journey towards wholeness and completion. The exploration of these parallels ultimately reveals the universality of human experiences across time and culture, reminding us of our shared longing for love and connection.

The Idalion Tablet: One of the Earliest Known Written Contracts in Europe

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

The fascinating field of archeology continually offers glimpses into our shared past. These windows into bygone eras can take many forms, ranging from monumental structures, intricate artifacts, to small but significant objects. One such object is the Idalion Tablet, an artifact of great importance that has significantly contributed to our understanding of the ancient world.

The Idalion Tablet, found in modern-day Cyprus, is a bronze tablet inscribed with a long and complex legal agreement from the 5th century BC. The intricacy of the text and its condition have positioned it as a critical resource for the study of ancient Cypriot society and language, and it provides valuable information about the political, legal, and social practices of its time.

A peasant from the Cyprus village of Dali first came across the tablet in 1850. It was preserved in the old official treasury of the temple of Athena on the western acropolis of Idalion. Honoré Théodoric d'Albert de Luynes bought it, and in 1862 he gave it to the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. It is currently held in Paris' Cabinet des médailles. The Idalion bilingual was discovered in 1870, but the script was not decoded until later.

 

It has a particularly significant role to play in the history of the Cypriot kingdoms. A reward is given to a family of doctors who provided free medical care for the casualties when the city was besieged by the Persians and the Kitians in 478–470 BC. It is engraved on both sides with a lengthy inscription that records a contract entered into by "the king and the city" and records the contract. It provides information about the socioeconomic and political climate at the time of the war. The combined decision made by the monarch and the populace demonstrates the city's democratic nature, which is based on Greek ideals. It also describes the first known social assistance system.

The Historical Context of Idalion Tablet

The Idalion Tablet was found in the ancient city of Idalion, one of the ten city-kingdoms of Cyprus, during the 1st millennium BC. Idalion flourished thanks to its advantageous geographical location and the rich copper deposits in its vicinity. It was here that the tablet was discovered in the 19th century, revealing a wealth of information about the complex societies that inhabited the area in ancient times.

Author Poulpy

The Content of the Idalion Tablet

The Idalion Tablet is written in the Arcadocypriot dialect, a form of the ancient Greek language, providing an invaluable reference for linguistic studies. The script used is the Cypriot syllabary.

The text inscribed on the tablet is a legal contract that outlines the agreement between the city's government and a group of doctors. According to the contract, the city commissioned these physicians to provide medical services to injured workers in the city's copper mines. The agreement specifies the compensation for the doctors and stipulates that they should bear the cost of unsuccessful treatments.

The fact that this agreement was inscribed in bronze, a costly material, underscores its importance. It also indicates the high value ancient Cypriots placed on both legal contracts and medical services, revealing much about their society and civilization.

the Mysterious Cypriot Syllabary

The Cypriot syllabary is a deciphered syllabic script used in Iron Age Cyprus from around the 11th to the 4th centuries BC, with the earliest known example found on a clay tablet dating back to the 11th century BC. The script was deciphered in the 19th century by George Smith due to the Idalion bilingual. The script is descended from the Cypro-Minoan syllabary, which was used on the island during the Late Bronze Age; the latter is thought to have descended from Linear A and unquestionably is a member of the group of Aegean scripts.. Unlike its predecessor, the Cypriot syllabary was deciphered in the 19th century, primarily through its usage in writing the known ancient Greek language in its Arcadocypriot dialect, which was spoken in Cyprus at the time.

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The Cypriot syllabary consists of 56 signs. Each sign generally stands for a syllable in the form of "(consonant) + (vowel)" or "(vowel)", but there are some exceptions to this rule. While the language written in this script was primarily Greek, there were also inscriptions made in the native Cypriot languages, Eteocypriot and Eteo-Cretan. Moreover, a Greek and Eteocypriot bilingual inscription was discovered in Amathus. The Cypriot syllabary was eventually replaced by the Greek alphabet, which was introduced to Cyprus after its annexation by the kingdom of Macedonia in the 4th century BC.

The Significance of the Idalion Tablet

Several factors contribute to the Idalion Tablet's significance in archaeological and historical research.

First, it serves as an important linguistic resource. The tablet is one of the few surviving documents written in the Arcadocypriot dialect, which allows researchers to study the nuances of this ancient form of Greek and its evolution. From its discovery until today, a series of scholars published and commented extensively on its text, thus contributing substantially not only to its interpretation, but also to the development of research on the Cypriot syllabary and the history of ancient Cyprus

Secondly, it offers a unique insight into the legal and social practices of ancient Cypriot society. The content of the contract highlights the organization and structure of their society, shedding light on their legal systems, occupational structure, and social values.

Thirdly, the tablet provides valuable evidence of early medical practice and the role of physicians in ancient societies. The fact that the doctors were held accountable for the effectiveness of their treatments speaks volumes about the sophistication of ancient medical ethics and their progressive approach to patient care.

In conclusion, the Idalion Tablet is not just an artifact; it is a testament to a civilization and its practices, capturing a fragment of the rich tapestry of human history in its inscriptions. This ancient piece of bronze continues to be a crucial link between the present and the past, enlightening scholars and enthusiasts alike with its tale of a bygone era. It stands as a powerful reminder of the complexity of ancient societies, inviting us to delve deeper into our shared past, understand our roots, and comprehend the journey of human civilization.

The Lamp of Aeneas found in Tenea, Greece: What it proves about the city's relationship with Troy

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Tenea: An Ancient City with a Rich History and Mythical Connections

Nestled in the region of Corinthia in southern Greece, the ancient city of Tenea boasts a history that dates back to the Bronze Age. Known for its cultural and historical significance, this enigmatic city has been the subject of archaeological studies for decades. Its origin story, which links Tenea to the Trojan War, has intrigued scholars and history enthusiasts alike. In this article, we will explore the history behind the foundation of Tenea, its discovery by archaeologists, and delve into its possible connections to ancient Troy.

Foundation of Tenea

The foundation of Tenea is steeped in myth and legend. According to ancient Greek tradition, the city was founded by Trojan captives who were brought to the Peloponnese after the fall of Troy. These captives, were given the task by Agamemnon of building a new city, which they named Tenea in honor of the goddess Athena, who was also known as Teneatis.

This origin story, while rooted in myth, is believed to hold some elements of truth. It is thought that Tenea was established during the 12th century BC, around the same time that the Trojan War is thought to have taken place. The city's strategic location, between the ancient cities of Corinth and Mycenae, allowed it to grow and flourish throughout the centuries, becoming a prosperous trade center.

Discovery by Archaeologists

Tenea's ancient ruins remained hidden from the world until the 19th century when the first excavations began. However, it wasn't until the 21st century that the significance of the site started to become clear. In 2013, the archaeologist Eleni Korka led a team of researchers to conduct extensive excavations, unearthing a wealth of artifacts and evidence of ancient life.

The archaeological site spans several acres and includes remnants of ancient houses, tombs, and a theater. The discovery of an ancient cemetery, in particular, provided crucial insights into the lives of the people who once inhabited Tenea. The graves, which date from the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD, contained valuable offerings such as pottery, jewelry, and weapons, indicating the wealth and status of the ancient Teneans.

Clues About Tenea's Connection with Ancient Troy

The mythical connection between Tenea and ancient Troy has long captivated historians and archaeologists. While definitive proof of this connection remains elusive, there are several clues that suggest a strong link between the two cities.

Firstly, the mythological origin story of Tenea's foundation by Trojan captives implies a direct connection to Troy. Additionally, the worship of the goddess Athena Teneatis further strengthens this link, as Athena was the patron goddess of both cities.

Furthermore, during the excavations led by Eleni Korka, a stone inscription was found that bore the name of a Tenean man, Sekoundos. This discovery is significant because the name Sekoundos has a Trojan etymology, suggesting that the Teneans may have maintained their Trojan heritage for centuries after their settlement in Greece.

The Lamp of Aeneas - Tenea Under Roman Rule

There were several items uncovered at Tenea in 2018, including a Roman oil lamp depicting Aeneas leaving Troy holding his aged father Anchises on his shoulder and his younger son Ascanius by the hand. This representation was based on Virgil's epic "The Aeneid". A 500-square-meter complex of Roman baths was discovered during this season's dig at Tenea.

The relationship between the Romans and the Trojans is a captivating aspect of ancient history, blending myth and reality to create a powerful origin story. Despite the geographical and temporal distance between the two civilizations, the Romans viewed the Trojans as their ancestors, forging a connection that shaped the cultural and historical narrative of ancient Rome.

The most famous account of the relationship between the Romans and the Trojans comes exactly from the Roman poet Virgil's epic, the Aeneid. Written during the 1st century BC, the Aeneid recounts the story of Aeneas, a Trojan prince and the son of the goddess Venus (Aphrodite in Greek mythology) and the mortal Anchises. Following the fall of Troy, Aeneas and a group of survivors embark on a journey to find a new homeland.

After many trials and tribulations, Aeneas reaches the Italian peninsula, where he marries the Latin princess Lavinia and establishes the city of Alba Longa. According to the myth, Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome, are direct descendants of Aeneas, thus connecting the Romans to the Trojans through a shared lineage.

The relationship between the Romans and the Trojans held significant political implications. By claiming descent from the Trojans, the Romans could assert their divine lineage and elevate their status among the ancient Mediterranean civilizations. Furthermore, this connection allowed Rome to distance itself from the Greeks, who were often viewed as rivals.

The Roman conquest of Greece began in the 2nd century BC, with the Macedonian Wars marking the beginning of Rome's expansion into the Greek world. By the mid-1st century BCE, Rome had effectively annexed the entirety of Greece, incorporating the region into the Roman Empire as the province of Achaea.

During this time, Tenea's strategic location between Corinth and Mycenae made it an important center for trade and communication. Consequently, the city attracted the attention of the Roman conquerors, who sought to integrate Tenea into their growing empire.

The Roman conquerors brought with them their own customs, beliefs, and practices, which influenced the local culture of Tenea. At the same time, Tenea's unique history and connections to ancient Troy likely intrigued the Romans, who themselves believed in a shared lineage with the Trojans through the myth of Aeneas.

This mutual fascination led to a cultural exchange, with the Romans adopting certain aspects of Tenean culture, and the Teneans integrating Roman practices into their own way of life. For instance, the worship of the goddess Athena Teneatis, which was central to the Tenean religious tradition, may have resonated with the Romans due to their own reverence for the goddess Minerva, the Roman equivalent of Athena.

The city of Tenea experienced a period of transformation under Roman rule, as it adapted to the new political, economic, and cultural landscape. Roman influence in Tenea is evident in the archaeological record, which shows the construction of buildings, infrastructure, and monuments characteristic of Roman architecture.

As part of the province of Achaea, Tenea enjoyed a degree of autonomy, allowing it to maintain its local customs and traditions. The city continued to prosper during the Roman period, benefiting from the extensive trade networks that connected the Roman Empire. The ancient cemetery discovered in Tenea, with its rich grave offerings, provides evidence of the city's wealth and status during this time.

While archaeological evidence has not yet provided conclusive proof of a connection between Tenea and ancient Troy, the tantalizing clues unearthed so far invite further exploration and study. As excavations continue, it is hoped that more insights into the captivating history of this enigmatic city will be revealed.

As Tenea continues to be uncovered and studied, it stands as a testament to the rich cultural and historical tapestry of ancient Greece. Its unique history, which blends myth and reality, serves as a reminder of the complex connections between the ancient civilizations that shaped the world as we know it today.

In the meantime, the archaeological site of Tenea continues to draw visitors from around the world, eager to catch a glimpse of the city's ancient ruins and to uncover the mysteries that still lie buried beneath the earth. The ongoing exploration of Tenea promises to shed new light on the complexities of ancient Greek society and the enduring legacy of the Trojan War. As the story of Tenea unfolds, it enriches our understanding of the past and fuels our curiosity for the secrets that remain to be discovered.

Shaking hands: How the ancient Greeks revolutionized the way people around the world greet each other

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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Handshaking is just one of many forms of greeting that have been used throughout history and across cultures. Handshaking, as a form of greeting, has evolved and spread across the globe in various ways. Although the ancient Greeks played a role in popularizing the handshake, many other factors have contributed to its widespread adoption as well.

The origin of handshaking is not precisely known, but it is believed to date back to at least the 5th century BCE in ancient Greece, where it was a symbol of peace, as it showed that neither person was carrying a weapon. Handshaking has been depicted in ancient Greek art, such as on funerary steles and in vase paintings, often showing the gesture between two individuals as a sign of agreement or friendship.

However, other cultures and societies have their own traditional forms of greeting that may predate or have developed independently of the ancient Greek handshake. For example, bowing is a common greeting in many East Asian countries, while the Maori of New Zealand have the hongi, a traditional greeting where they press their noses together.

Over time, handshaking has become a more widely adopted form of greeting, especially in Western societies, but it cannot be solely attributed to the ancient Greeks as the source of this global change.

The Roman Empire, for instance, played a significant role in spreading the handshake. Roman handshakes, however, were slightly different than the Greek version, as they often involved clasping the forearms as a sign of trust and friendship. As the Roman Empire expanded, the custom of handshaking was disseminated to many regions under its control, further popularizing the gesture.

The handshake has also been historically associated with chivalry and courtesy, especially during the Middle Ages. Knights would offer their hand in a handshake to demonstrate that they were not carrying weapons and to show respect to their peers.

In more recent times, the handshake has become a standard greeting in many professional and social settings across the world, particularly in Western cultures. It is often used in business interactions, diplomatic meetings, and social events as a sign of respect and trust. In some cases, the handshake has also developed into more intricate variations, such as secret handshakes used by members of certain groups or organizations.

Despite the popularity of handshaking, different cultures have their own distinct greetings that are deeply rooted in their traditions. For example, the Indian "namaste" involves pressing the palms together in front of the chest with a slight bow, while many Middle Eastern countries practice a combination of handshaking and cheek kissing.

In conclusion, the ancient Greeks contributed to the practice of handshaking, but they did not single-handedly revolutionize the way people greet each other worldwide. The handshake has been influenced by various cultural practices and historical contexts, and it exists alongside many other diverse forms of greeting.

A massive ancient Greek city was discovered submerged in the Aegean Sea

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Aegean Sea has been home to the remains of a sizable Bronze Age city, according to the Greek Ministry of Culture, Education, and Religious Affairs. The settlement, which is 4,500 years old, spans 12 acres and is made up of towers, ceramics, tools, and other artifacts in addition to stone defense constructions, paved surfaces, walkways, and towers.

A group of researchers from the University of Geneva, the Swiss School of Archaeology, and the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities made the discovery while looking for signs of the oldest community in Europe near Kiladha Bay on the Peloponnese Peninsula, south of Athens. The discovery of the old city is no less noteworthy even though they were hoping to find remnants that go back at least 8,000 years.

historical fortifications

According to Spero News, archaeologists discovered several enormous foundations in the form of a horseshoe near a wall line. These foundations are thought to have been towers used to protect the city. The ruins date back to the Bronze Age, although the construction is distinctive and was unheard of at the time. The foundations, according to Professor Julien Beck of the University of Geneva, are of "huge nature, unseen in Greece till now."

"Our discovery is significant in part because of its size. Over a stone base, there must have been a brick superstructure. The likelihood of discovering such walls underwater is really slim. The facility's exact size is unknown at this time. It is encircled by fortifications, but we don't know why "Beck threw in.

Countless Artifacts

Because of the number and caliber of the objects found, including pottery, red ceramics, stone tools, and obsidian blades from the Helladic Period, Beck indicated that the finding of the ancient city is significant (3200–2050 BC). In fact, they had been practicing at the neighboring Lambayanna beach when they saw pottery fragments, and it was by following the trail of relics that they eventually found the city.

The remains, which Beck has referred to as an "archaeologist's paradise," have yielded a total of more than 6,000 objects. The Cyclades archipelago's island of Milos, which has been inhabited since the third millennium, is thought to have provided the obsidian blades with their volcanic rock source.

According to the International Business Times, the study team is hoping to learn more about trade, seafaring, and daily life during the era thanks to the relics.

The walls that the researchers discovered are contemporaneous with the Giza pyramids, which were constructed between 2600 and 2500 B.C., with the Cycladic civilization (3200 to 2000 B.C.), and with the first Minoans on the island of Crete (2700–1200 B.C.), according to Spero News. They did, however, exist 1,000 years before the Mycenaean culture, which was the first significant Greek civilization (1650–1100 BC).

The team is hoping that additional research at and near Lambayanna will shed light on a complex web of coastal villages spanning the Aegean Sea.

The ancient Greeks arrived in Iceland before the Vikings, according to a new theory

There is currently no conclusive evidence that the ancient Greeks reached Iceland before the Vikings. While there are some interesting similarities between certain aspects of Greek and Icelandic cultures, such as the use of similar symbolism and mythological figures, the archaeological and historical evidence linking the two remains scant.

The idea that the ancient Greeks may have reached Iceland before the Vikings is a relatively recent and controversial theory put forward by a few scholars. However, it is not widely accepted in the academic community, and many archaeologists and historians remain skeptical.

There is certainly evidence that the Vikings were the first Europeans to establish a permanent settlement in Iceland, which they did in the late 9th century AD. They called the island "Ísland," which means "land of ice," and went on to create a unique culture that blended Norse, Celtic, and other influences.

The Slendingabók (The Book of the Icelanders), which was composed around 1130, is the oldest known written work.

Landnámabók is another intriguing source from the 12th century (The Book of Settlements).

According to the Icelandic Book of Settlements the island's first permanent resident was a Norwegian named Ingólfr Arnarson, who arrived there in 874.

At a place called Reykjavk, he constructed a house for himself and his wife, Hallveig Fródadóttir.

He was a farmer when more than 400 settlers arrived in Iceland to claim a portion of the land, bringing with them their family, servants, and enslaved people.

Although some arrived from other Nordic nations and the Norse Viking Age settlements in the British Isles, the majority of the inhabitants came from Norway.

The idea that ancient Greeks arrived in Iceland before the Vikings and Norse people has drawn the attention of more and more academics.

This notion is based on the writings of Pytheas of Massilia (350–285 B.C. ), who wrote about his expedition to the Arctic and mentioned a strange land in the north that is now known as Thule.

Greek adventurer, geographer, and astronomer Pytheas is today regarded as the first scientist to have explored and written about the Arctic, polar ice, and Celtic and Germanic people.

In addition to being an excellent astronomer, Pytheas was the first to describe the Midnight Sun to the world.

The stories of Pytheas were rejected for generations, but the concept of Thule sparked the curiosity of those who yearned to know more about this enigmatic region in the North.

"Since classical times, Thule marked the imaginative horizon of the unknown North, first described by Pytheas of Massalia, who in the third century B.C. reported on a strange place far north ('six days sail north of Orcades') where the sun would never set in the summer and where the ocean was solid frozen. Nobody knows for sure how far north Pytheas went himself and how much he relied on secondary knowledge in his own (lost) descriptions of this place." 

Pytheas claimed that people he named the Hyperboreans lived in Thule.

He added that they reside on an island in Britain's north.

It is a location that is "beyond the north wind."

The Hyperboreans were praised by later Greek and Roman writers like Herodotus, Pindar, and Pliny for living pleasant lives and being free from disease.

Thule's exact location is still a mystery.

According to Andrew Breeze, an epigrapher at the University of Navarra, the renowned Thule was actually Iceland based on a new linguistic explanation of the Greek word.

"While the name Thule has no meaning in Greek, Breeze suggests that it could be a scribal error for the original name Thymele, which means "altar" in ancient Greek. This name could perfectly fit the southern coast of Iceland." 

Breeze claims that if we imagine what Pytheas thought when he first saw Iceland, we can find solutions to the enigma.

Breeze describes his theory in an article for The Housman Society Journal, saying that "the dark volcanic cliffs of the south coast (above beaches of black sand) would have an altar's slab-like appearance; and the resemblance would be the more significant if mist and clouds rising from the island (to say nothing of plumes from its volcanoes, several of which are in its southern part) reminded Pytheas of an altar's reeking sacrifices."

No surprise if he referred to the island as "altar, the altar" or "thymele."

Regrettably, his scribes failed to understand his wonder (and possibly awe) at discovering a new continent.

Hence, it would appear that Thymele to Thoule, Thyle, and Thule were corrupted over a period of three centuries."

"According to Breeze, the idea of Iceland as a massive altar meshes nicely with what is known about ancient Greek altars.

Numerous of these altars were extraordinarily huge; one is supposed to have been 600 feet long and stood 40 feet tall at Syracuse."

Breeze contends "Iceland was without a doubt the location Pytheas discovered, a remarkable accomplishment.

Other applicants may be rejected.

Because of its likeness to a temple's sacrificial altar, he gave it the name "Thymele altar (island)".

It is possible to reject the inaccurate and meaningless "Thule" as the result of scribal corruption.

There is no justification for it, any more than there is for "Boadicea," a queen who was appropriately referred to as "the victorious one, she who is successful," in Tacitus.

Yet, anyone who is familiar with academic culture may be certain that, just as we continue to hear about "Boadica," so too will we continue to hear about "Thule" for years to come.

It will be one of the countless scribal monsters that taint copies of classical texts, ancient world histories, and encyclopedias produced by renowned universities.

While the theory of ancient Greek exploration of Iceland is an intriguing idea, it remains a subject of debate among scholars, and more evidence would be needed to confirm it definitively.

How Samos city in Calabria was founded on the same latitude as Samos island in the Aegean?

According to tradition, Samos in Calabria was founded in 492 BC by Greek settlers who came from the island of Samos in the Aegean Sea to escape the invasion of the army of King Darius I of Persia.

The colonists reached the coast of the Ionian Sea and moved inland, near Fiumara La Verde, to Rudina, in the territory of the Epicephyrian Lokrians. Soon the city grew rapidly and extended its boundaries from Capo Bruzzano to the present Gerace.

They built a large port that connected the city of Samos with the nearest Greek islands, and thanks to its maritime, port and trade activity, it achieved a remarkable social and cultural development and became an important transport hub in the heart of the Ionian Sea.

It is believed that Samos Calabria is the birthplace of the famous sculptor Pythagoras of Rhegium. Around 1530 Samos was completely destroyed by a flood that lasted seven days and seven nights. Since then the name of the city was changed to Crepacuore and later to Precacore.

Today, in its place is the small village of Precacore, known for its ruins of Greek-Byzantine art and therefore often visited by foreign tourists. Many of these works of art have been recently restored.

Ancient paths lead to the ruins of the ancient site of Samos and walking tours are organized. Ancient Samos in Magna Grecia is the twin of Samos in Greece.

What is still an unsolved mystery is how they knew and built their city in an almost straight line (northern latitude) with Heraion of Samos, which intersects with Samos of Triphylia and Samis of Kefalonia of Homer?

This means that, for example, in the 5th century, the latitude was already known. Without it, it was not possible to go out to sea and return safely. Undoubtedly, they knew it thousands of years ago!

The Life and Work of the Multi-scientist and great Philosopher Aristotle

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by the archaeologist editor group

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Since the evidence gathered by archaeologists is so abundant that many speak of the discovery of Aristotle's tomb in ancient Stageira, let us look at what we know about this great philosopher.

According to what we know, he was born in Stageira in 384 BC and died in Chalkida in 322 BC. At the age of 17 he entered Plato's Academy in Athens, where he remained until the age of 37. There he is associated with Plato himself as well as with Eudoxus, Xenocrates, and other thinkers.

His works relate to many sciences, such as physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, politics, etc., and form the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy. The period of maturity begins with biological research, the results of which constitute the first systematization of biological phenomena in Europe. Aristotle's thought and teachings, briefly referred to as Aristotelianism, influenced philosophical, theological and scientific thought for centuries until the late Middle Ages.

Life and action

Aristotle was born in 384 BC in the ancient city of Stageira in Halkidiki, 55 kilometers east of modern Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was physician to the Macedonian king Amyntas III, who was Philip's father. Nicomachus, who according to the Suidae Lexicon had written six books on medicine and one on physics, considered the Homeric hero and physician Mahaon, son of Asclepius, as his ancestor. His mother Phaestia was from Chalkida and, like his father, belonged to the family of the Asclepiads. Aristotle's interest in biology was sparked in part by his father, as the Asclepiads taught their children anatomy from an early age; it is also said that Aristotle sometimes helped his father when he was young.

Aristotle was prematurely orphaned by his father and mother, and his guardianship was taken over by a friend of his father's, Proxenus, who had settled in Atarneus of Aeolis in Asia Minor, opposite of Lesbos. Proxenus, who cared for Aristotle as if he were his own child, sent him to Athens at the age of 17 (367 BC) to become a student of Plato. In fact, Aristotle studied at Plato's Academy for 20 years (367 - 347), until the year his teacher died. In the Academy environment, he amazed everyone and even his teacher with his intelligence and philanthropy. Plato called it the "dissertation spirit" and the house of the "reader's house".

When Plato died in 347 B.C., the question arose of a successor in the leadership of the school. Precedence for the post was given to Plato's three best students, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and Speusippus. Aristotle then left Athens with Xenocrates and settled in Assos, a city on the Asia Minor beach, opposite of Lesbos. Assos was then ruled by two Platonic philosophers, Erastos and Koriskos, to whom the ruler of Atarneas and old student of Plato and Aristotle, Hermias, had left the city. The two friends, governors of Assos, had founded a philosophical school there as a branch of the Academy.

In Assos, Aristotle taught for three years and, together with his friends, achieved what Plato could not. They were closely associated with Hermias and influenced him so that his tyranny became milder and more just. But the end of the tyrant was tragic. Because he anticipated the Macedonian campaign in Asia, he allied himself with Philip. Therefore, the Persians captured him and left him to die on a martyr's cross.

In 345 BC, on the advice of his student Theophrastus, Aristotle crossed to Lesbos and settled in Mytilene, where he stayed and taught until 342 BC. In the meantime, he had married the niece and stepdaughter of Hermias, Pythiada, with whom he had a daughter who took her mother's name. After the death of his first wife, Aristotle was later in Athens with Herpyllida from Stageira, with whom he had a son, Nicomachus. In 342 B.C. he was invited by Philip to Macedonia to take charge of the education of his son Alexander, who was then only 13 years old. Aristotle eagerly set about the task of educating the young heir. He took care to instill in him the Panhellenic spirit and used the Homeric epics as an educational tool. Alexander's education took place sometimes in Pella and sometimes in Mieza, a city whose ruins have been brought to light by archeological excavation; it was located at the foot of the mountain on which today's Naoussa in Macedonia is built. There he was informed of the death of Hermias in 341 BC.

Aristotle remained at the Macedonian court for six years. When Alexander crushed the resistance of the Thebans and restored peace in southern Greece, Aristotle went to Athens (335 BC) and founded his own philosophical school there. For the foundation of his school he chose the Gymnasium, also called Lyceum, between Lycabettus and Ilissos, near the Dioharis Gate. The site of the Gymnasium was recently discovered during the excavations for the construction of the new Goulandris Museum behind the Byzantine Museum of Athens in Rigillis Street. This historic excavation site is currently being renovated so that it can be visited. There was a grove dedicated to Apollo and the Muses. With the money generously given to him by Alexander, Aristotle erected magnificent buildings and arcades called "Peripatoi"(walks in Greek). Perhaps that is why his school was called "Peripatetic school" and his students "Peripatetic Philosophers".

The school was organized according to the standards of the Platonic Academy. Classes for advanced students were held in the morning ("eothinos peripatos") and for beginners in the afternoon ("peri to deilinon", "evening walk"). The morning classes were purely philosophical ("auditory"). The afternoon "rhetorical" and "external".

The school had a large library and was so well organized that it later served as a model for the founding of the libraries of Alexandria and Pergamon. Aristotle collected maps and tools useful for teaching physics. Thus, the school soon became a famous center of scientific research. In the thirteen years that Aristotle spent in Athens, he created most of his work, which by its scope and quality evokes our admiration. For it is quite amazing how a single person could gather and record so much information in such a short period of time.

When the news of Alexander's death arrived in 323 BC, the supporters of the anti-Macedonian party thought they had found in Aristotle an opportunity to take revenge on the Macedonians. The priesthood, represented by the hierophant of the Eleusinian Demeter, Eurymedon, and the school of Isocrates with Demophilus accused Aristotle of blasphemy ("blasphemous writing") for erecting an altar to Hermias, writing the Hymn to Areti(Virtue), and the epigram on the statue of Hermes at Delphi. However, realizing the true motives and intentions of his accusers, Aristotle traveled to Chalkida before his trial (323 BC). He stayed there in the house he had received from his mother, together with his second wife Herpyllida and his two children Nikomachos and Pythias.

Aristotle died in Chalkida between the 1st and 2nd of October of the year 322 B.C. of a stomach disease, in sadness and melancholy. His body was taken to Stageira, where he was buried with great honors. His fellow citizens declared him an "inhabitant" of the city and erected an altar over his grave. In his memory they established a festival, the "Aristoteleia", and named one of the months "Aristoteleios". The square where he was buried became the seat of the Parliament.

When he left Athens, he left the direction of the school to his pupil Theophrastus, whom he considered most suitable. Thus, the intellectual institution of Aristotle continued to radiate even after the death of the great teacher.

The work of the author

The Alexandrians estimated that Aristotle wrote a total of about 400 books. Diogenes Laertius calculated his work in verse and found that it amounted to 45 myriads, exactly 445,270 verses. A large part of his work has been lost. It belonged to the category of public or "external" courses and was written in a dialogic form. Of them, only the State of Athens has been preserved in a papyrus found in Egypt. The works that survive today correspond to the lessons that Aristotle gave to his advanced students, which are described as "auditory or esoteric". Therefore, they are written in continuous speech rather than dialogs. The list of Hesychius (appended to the biography of Aristotle) contains 197 titles of works and essentially coincides with the list of Diogenes Laertes.

The epic poem of Iliad on a map: All the Homeric heroes and their origins

This map is inspired by the “Achaeans and Trojans” map on Greek Mythology Link, a website created by Carlos Parantas, author of the "Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology".

It shows all the heroes of the Iliad and their origins in a unique representation of the major and minor characters of the immortal Homeric epic, both on the side of the Achaeans and the Trojans.

So if you want to refresh your knowledge about the "divine" Achilles, Odysseus, the sons of Atrea, or if you are simply touched/moved by Homer's epics, you should take a look at the map below:

click here to enlarge

Greece: A clay inscription with the verses of the Odyssey is exhibited In the Archaeological Museum of Olympia!

The clay inscription P15632 with the first 13 verses of the rhapsody Ξ of the Odyssey (Odysseus' encounter with Eumaeus) is exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Olympia.

It is a recent find, coming from the Roman cemetery at Fragonissi, 1.5 km east of Olympia, and it was used as a building material in a funerary monument from the 3rd Century AD.

It was found in 2018 and is considered one of the most important archaeological discoveries of the year worldwide!

According to the research data, the inscription is the oldest preserved fragment of the specific verses and at the same time one of the oldest texts of the Homeric epics from the Greek area (apart from shells or vases with verses from the Homeric epics).

This underlines the great importance of the find, but also its uniqueness as an archaeological, epigraphic, philological and historical testimony.

The sculptural decoration of the Parthenon

The Parthenon's sculptures were decorated by numerous sculptors, many of whom were students of Pheidias. In the sources, Alkamenes, Agorakritos from Paros, and Myron from Eleftheres are most frequently mentioned. Gold and ivory were used in the construction of the colossal statue of Athena by the sculptor Pheidias. 438 BC marked the completion of the project.

The entire sculptural decoration of the Parthenon

The sculptural decoration of the Parthenon includes the pediments, the metopes, the frieze, the capes and the ivory statue of Athena. The theme of the decoration is inspired by the mythical history of Attica. The Parthenon is dedicated to Athens itself rather than to the patron goddess of the city. It emphasizes the autochthony of the Athenians through the display of its sculptures, and at the same time is a symbol of the economic, intellectual and artistic development of Athens. The Parthenon also houses the treasure of the Athenians, which is also the treasure of their allies. The sculptures also represent the ideas of Athenian democracy and Athenian imperialism, which according to Thucydides lasted from the end of the Median Wars to the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. These two sides are expressed in the representations of the sculptures.

The pediments

The compositions on the two pediments of the Parthenon consist of hologlyphic statues of supernatural size. The pediments were the last to be erected in the temple. The birth of the goddess Athena was depicted on the eastern pediment. According to mythological tradition, the daughter of Oceanus, Metis, became pregnant by Zeus. According to an oracle, after this pregnancy, which produced a daughter, a son was to be born who would become ruler of the sky. Zeus, who knew this oracle, devoured her. When the time came for the daughter to be born, Hephaestus struck Zeus' head with his ax and Athena came out armed.

The western pediment represents the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for supremacy in Attica, where, according to legend, the inhabitants preferred the olive tree given by Athena to the water source given by Poseidon.

The metopes

The entablature of the Parthenon was decorated with 92 metopes. There were 14 metopes on the narrow sides and 32 metopes on the long sides. The metopes of the Parthenon were the first sculptures to be carved since construction began. The theme of the sculptures was inspired by mythical battles. The metopes were inserted between the triglyphs. On the east side the metopes represent the battle of the Giants, on the north side the Iliu Persis, on the west side the battle of the Amazons and on the south side the battle of the Centaurs. The 14 metopes on the east side depicted Hercules and the Olympian gods, and although their theme was uniform, there were separate scenes every two or three metopes.

Photo Source: @Acropolis Museum

The 32 metopes on the north side depicted scenes from the epic mentioned above. Today, only 12 of the 32 remain. On the west side, all the fronts are preserved and in each one two or three figures are depicted. The well-preserved metopes on the south side depict the battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs, while many of the metopes are dominated by well-known figures from the myth such as Peirithus, the king of the Lapiths, and his friend Theseus. The reliefs of the faces are extraordinary and in some places stand out from the background in a completely hologlyphic way. The total number of metopes is 92.

The frieze

The presence of the frieze in the Parthenon represents an Ionic element for the sculptural decoration of the temple. The frieze was 160 meters long and 1 meter high and surrounded the wall of the temple on the outside. For this reason it was inaccessible to the visitor, and Pausanias, the traveler who wrote about the Parthenon, does not mention it. The Panathenaia is depicted in the frieze with hundreds of human figures and animals, chariots and pedestrians, heroes and Olympian gods.

by PHOTO NIKOS DANIILIDIS

Colors used for the painting of the statues

Of great interest are the colors used for the decoration of the temple. According to ancient building tradition, the use of colors and the design of sculptures completed the appearance of the temples. When the temple was still being built, the white Pentelian marble shine dazzlingly. The problem was solved when the white surfaces were covered with colors. The present rose gold color of the marble is due to the passage of time. The podium, columns and portico were painted in bright white. The metopes and triglyphs were alternately blue and red. The color blue was used for the depth of the frieze and the drum. The sculptures were decorated with polychrome and gilded brass fittings.

Alexander the Great: The Siege and Conquest of the Rock of Sogdiana - The first campaign to conquer a fortress using mountaineering methods in world history

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by the archaeologist editor group

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The siege of the Rock of Sogdiana by Alexander the Great in 327 BC was an insignificant military event but of enormous strategic importance. It was a mountain fortress and the fate of the Sogdians depended on its liberty since they were once again ready for revolution. Oxyartis had organized the defense in this shelter and many revolutionary Sogdians and their families had gathered there. The steep cliffs and the thick snow that covered everything made the fortress inaccessible. The Sogdians had enough supplies to withstand the siege and also secured plenty of water from the snow. When Alexander the Great suggested that they surrender, they defiantly replied that he would have to find "winged soldiers" to take the fortress, which enraged him tremendously.

After the Sogdians refused, Alexander decided to attack the fortress. Thereupon he raised the first group of mountain commandos, or more precisely, the first group of elite Mountain Infantry Battalion. He selected 300 warriors who were the most skilled and experienced in climbing the cliffs and asked them to handle the operation, giving 12 talents to the one who climbed first.

According to Curtius, he told the elite soldiers, "Nature has placed nothing so high that courage cannot overcome it. By striving to achieve what others have not dared, we have Asia under our control."

Alexander's elite unit used today's climbing methods, making small iron nails like the ones they used to stabilize their tents. Then they fastened ropes over them and climbed up the steepest part of the rock at night to avoid being seen by enemies. They stuck the nails into crevices or ice and began to climb higher and higher. About thirty were lost in this attempt. The rest reached the summit at dawn and hoisted the flags as arranged.

Without wasting time, Alexander sent a herald to the Sogdians to shout to their vanguard that Alexander had found the winged soldiers, that he already possessed the top of the mountain, and that they must now surrender, at the same time urging them to look up. When the Sogdians saw the flags flying, they were disheartened by this unexpected news. Considering that many more Macedonians were standing on the summit and were armed to the teeth, they decided to surrender and yield to Alexander's psychological rather than physical advantage.