Ancient Inventions that are still in use today yet are unknown

A new wave of technologies that significantly transform society emerges every ten years. That never stops being absurd. Every time the newest, wackiest technology becomes routine and is replaced with more wackier technology, it becomes antiquated. Since when do people still find cordless phones to be amazing? A video camera, dictionary, recipe book, weather app, and weather forecasting service are all included in today's smartphones. Keep calm, world!

You might not be aware, despite all of this activity, that some of the appliances and technology you have used on a daily basis for the duration of your life predate your great-great-great-grandparents. No, actually. Some of the inventions of the ancients were so brilliant, so ridiculously excellent, that even today, centuries (or millennia!) later, no one has invented a better way to do things.

Give thanks to the ancient Egyptians for your healthy teeth and breath

It's ironic that no other animals brush, floss, and wash their mouths the way people do given how much time and money humans spend on dental care. Now, don't interpret this as a request to stop brushing. Oh please, no, don't. Instead, it's evidence that whoever had the crazy great idea to invent toothpaste did a fantastic job. According to HowStuffWorks, toothpaste has actually been there since ancient Egypt. While those people weren't chewing on manufactured sweeteners, they did have to contend with sand and grit getting into their bread dough.The enamel on teeth is not excellent!

Colgate claims that toothpaste use by the Egyptians dates back to 5000 BCE. However, it is clear that the toothpaste they used back then didn't contain fluoride, novamin, or xylitol since one example of an Egyptian toothpaste recipe from the fourth century reportedly contained crushed rock salt, a ton of pepper, dried iris flower, and mint. At least the last bit was preserved, right?

One contemporary Austrian dentist who gave it a try reported that it made his gums bleed (ouch), but otherwise accomplished the job fairly well, assuming you don't mind bleeding. Even though the various recipes for toothpaste have been greatly improved, it is still amazing that the idea has existed for as long as the pyramids.

For a very, very long time, locks have been discovered

Every time you leave your house at night and lock it behind you by inserting a small key into a small hole, take a moment to quietly thank the good ol' Mesopotamians who, according to D.T. Potts, figured out how to lock doors way back at the dawn of human civilization.

According to Gizmodo, there has been evidence of locking systems since 4000 BCE in what is now Iraq. Although made of vintage wood rather than modern metal, these Mesopotamian pin locks nonetheless performed in a manner that is strikingly similar to modern versions.

Using brass pins, the Egyptians improved this design, which was subsequently copied by Greece and eventually made its way to the Roman Empire. The use of metal locks spread during the Middle Ages, a time when dragons and the plague were major worries, and the general design hasn't changed all that much since then. Even though electric locks are now more prevalent than ever before, it's difficult to believe that the traditional analog design will ever completely disappear.

The development of paper in China changed everything

Consider a society without paper. E-readers are amazing now, but would mankind have ever advanced to its current state if individuals had continued to carve letters into stones a few hundred years ago? Even just one book would have required a lifetime to write.

China is credited with creating paper. According to the Ancient History Encyclopedia, the Chinese began experimenting with hemp-based paper materials in the second century BCE. This may have happened accidentally when hemp-based clothing was left outside too long after being washed. A famous inventor by the name of Cai Lun developed more sophisticated paper a few centuries later. He soaked and pressed plant fibers until the heated, long, dry sheets were absurdly perfect for writing on.

This eventually developed into those formerly popular paper scrolls, followed by paper currency, paper ornaments, and so forth. For ages, the Chinese experimented with various paper types, compositions, and colors, but they worked hard to keep this amazing technology a secret from Europe and the Middle East. The world, however, has never looked back since those nosy Westerners eventually realized what was going on, stole the great paper recipe sometime around the ninth century CE.

Of course, hemp is currently seeing a resurgence, and with it, traditional hemp paper.

(Unless it makes you ill) Gotta love that Roman plumbing

It goes without saying that the genius who came up with the concept of plumbing first deserves a gold star in the annals of history. According to Science Magazine, ancient Rome had the luxury of having halfway acceptable bathrooms because to a sophisticated network of aqueducts that may have been built as early as 200 BCE. Impressive? Oh, yes. Particularly when you consider how much worse everything became when the Middle Ages arrived.

Even though Rome's plumbing system was an architectural marvel and undoubtedly had an influence on the watery wonders we enjoy today, history reveals that it had some flaws. For starters, lead pipes most likely contributed to lead poisoning, a major concern (and one that still exists today, as residents of Flint, Michigan can attest to). The Atlantic also notes that while Rome's toilets, sewers, baths, and other facilities may have been constructed with the goal of reducing disease, the evidence has shown that they didn't actually do much for the public health... at least, not by modern standards, unless you consider widespread whipworm, dysentery, lice, and bedbugs to be a "minor" concern. Yikes.

The toilet in your bathroom (and the bum that sits on it) nonetheless owe the Roman empire a debt of gratitude even though their plumbing seems disgusting to us now.

Even the ancients enjoyed drinking alcohol

There would be one certain comfort you could rely on if you were to turn your time machine to "random," just to see what era or area you popped up in: someone, somewhere in the world, would be getting destroyed. Let's go, mankind! However, which culture actually started the whole alcohol thing, looking back? In order to avoid being clichéd and blaming the Irish, you need be aware that the earliest records of alcohol usage date from China, per NBC News. Although an early wine made of honey, rice, and fruit might have given those people a terrible hangover 9,000 years ago, the science of alcohol production was still in its infancy.

Whoever understood first that consuming fermented fruits causes a crazy and dizzy reaction—or that it wouldn't kill you—is unknown, but after everyone caught on, the world has never been the same. For instance, there is proof of wine made from grapes in Iran dating back to 5,400 BCE. History claims that the origins of beer may be traced to the Middle East, where some 5,000 years ago, the Sumerians celebrated with alcohol and even worshiped Ninkasi, a goddess of beer.

And since alcohol and people go together like peanut butter and jelly, this situation is likely to persist for some time to come. It makes sense why "Prohibition" as a whole didn't work out.

The courageous (and quite old) man who created the vending machine

Want to venture a guess as to when the steam engine was created? Actually, it was done 2,000 years ago by a Greek man named Hero of Alexandria (or Heron, as he is sometimes ascribed). According to Kotaku, this incredibly brave dude's invention, the aeolipile, decoded a code that wouldn't be done so again until the 1800s. As if that weren't impressive enough, according to Encyclopedia Britannica, Hero's brilliance was so far ahead of his time that he also created wind-powered technology, automated "robot" devices, mathematical ideas like Hero's formula and Fermat's principle, and authored a number of important geometry books. Essentially, this man was the Shuri of 62 CE, but he was genuine.

Oddly enough, the vending machine was one of Hero's more entertaining inventions. Of course, Hero's version dispensed holy water instead of soda cans or candy bars like the one in your break room. But it used coins, just like the vending machines of today. Granola bars are undoubtedly more thrilling than a burst of water, but you have to admire this device for starting the process in the first place and, most likely, never having anything get trapped in it.

You won't be able to guess when the first newspaper was printed

Contrary to popular belief, the common people of the Roman Empire shared your interest in information. Fortunately, they had their own "newspaper" to keep them informed of the most recent developments. This daily publication, called Acta diurna, served as the model for all subsequent newspapers.Acta, a Latin word that means "things that have been done," was divided into two historic imprints.

In comparison to its sister publication, Actua senatus, which was only available to politicians (or could be read at the library with special permission), Acta diurna was a public journal that covered various social events, obituaries, human interest stories, and sports updates (you know, gladiators).

The Aztecs produced their own hot cocoa

Although people have been eating chocolate for a very long time, the solid chocolate bars we see today are a relatively recent invention. however, hot chocolate beverages? Those have been around forever, even though they weren't always quite as sweet.

First off, it's vital to explain a few terminology for the benefit of people shouting "chocolate is a plant!" in the back: the beans are technically called cacao, whereas "chocolate" is any food or drink item manufactured from the aforementioned cacao beans. Got it? The word chocolate is originated from the Aztec "xocoatl," which was the name for the specific hot beverage they enjoyed creating. According to the Smithsonian, chocolate was only a hot beverage for the great duration of its history. Aztec xocoatl was generally comparable to what you drink now, but it was bitter instead of sweet. It is likely that chocolate consumption in Latin America dates back three or four millennia. Both the Aztecs and the Mayans thought chocolate had divine characteristics. Not a surprise given the ongoing obsession with it among people.

Back then, cosmetics were just as significant as they are today

It's not a new trend for people to love to accessorize their faces with eyeliner, lipstick, and other cosmetics. According to CNN, cosmetics played a significant role in daily life in ancient Egypt. No of your gender, class, or origin, wearing makeup was acceptable and encouraged, and a lot of it looked like modern-day cosmetics.

Cleopatra, for instance, adored applying red lipstick in front of her mirror even though it was made from crushed beetles. Although eye shadow frequently contained animal fat or vegetable oil, specialty eye paints could be made from materials like crushed glass and gold. HowStuffWorks claims that eye liner, which was made of "kohl" (a combination of different metals, almonds, and diamonds), was freely used by both men and women to block sunlight, ward off evil spirits, and (possibly unintentionally) protect against infections. The use of makeup expanded to the Romans and Greeks in the centuries that followed, and although the art form experienced a fall throughout the Middle Ages, it has since grown to become one of the largest enterprises on the world.

Before the Romans, there was concrete

To be fair, the Roman Empire deserves much of the credit for the invention of concrete because they were the ones to master the formula for this icy, hard, and gray substance better than anybody else. However, contrary to popular belief, it wasn't created by the Romans first.According to Harvinder Singh, concrete buildings built by the Nabataeans, an Arab desert people, date back to 6,500 BCE and have been discovered throughout the Middle East (specifically, modern-day Syria and Jordan). Giatec Scientific claims that about 3,000 years later, the Chinese and Egyptians were also edging closer to cement.

Naturally, the Romans then took over and outdid themselves by building some of the most impressive structures in human history using a mixture of lime, seawater, and volcanic ash. Sadly, concrete technology virtually disappeared during the Middle Ages before being revived in the 1700s. Funny thing about that old Roman concrete, though: according to Time Magazine, it was actually superior (and more environmentally friendly) than modern mixtures, as evidenced by the fact that historic Roman monuments are still standing tall today, 2000 years later. The integrity of more modern 20th century structures, in comparison, is, to put it mildly, poor.

No of the era, umbrellas have always been a stylish accessory

According to ThoughtCo, umbrellas have been for a very long time before Rihanna, Mary Poppins, the Penguin, or even James Smith and Sons. In reality, people have been shielding their heads from the elements using umbrellas for more than 4,000 years.

Depending on how narrowly you define the term "umbrella," it's possible that the Egyptians were the ones to start things off. According to Umbrella History, they were the ones who created the first parasols used to shield people from the sun, even though these items were manufactured from palm leaves fastened to a stick. Such parasols eventually became associated with Egyptian royalty. It's important to note, however, that the Egyptians never tried to waterproof their parasols. According to TheInventors.org, the Chinese began waxing and lacquering their umbrellas in the eleventh century BCE. Similar to Egypt, China adopted the use of magnificent four-tiered umbrellas as a sign of grandeur for the monarch.

The use of umbrellas began to spread to Greece and Rome somewhere in the first millennium BCE, but only among women.Yes, I do.Because, you know, turning down an umbrella so you can show up at your next business meeting drenched is nothing but super-macho, right?This ridiculous trend persisted until the 1700s, when a visitor from England by the name of Jonas Hanway declared it "okay" for men to hold umbrellas as well.

Democracy has a long history

If you were to read a history book and get to the conclusion that the majority of it was dominated by cruel authoritarian regimes, where dreadful egomaniacs viciously violated the rights of thousands of subjects, then, yeah, that's not a lie, either. Class distinctions and those who take advantage of them have always existed; billion-dollar firms of today are only the logical development of feudal rulers.

There are some encouraging moments in history, such as the discovery that the Greeks had this brilliant concept of "democracy" thousands of years before the American Founding Fathers made it hip. According to history, the term "democracy" actually derives from the Greek demokratia, which means "rule by the people." Demokratia, which consisted of three distinct governing bodies of delegates, was first noted and first effective democracy in the world, introduced by a person named Cleisthenes of Athens in the year 507 BCE. For around 200 years, this method performed rather effectively.

There is no denying that this creative Greek invention changed the world by laying the foundation for many of today's political systems, even though it had some drawbacks such as the fact that only male Athenian citizens aged 18 or older could vote, excluding women, residents whose parents hadn't been born in Athens, and slaves (sigh). Excellent work, Cleisthenes.

The Antikythera Mechanism

More than 21 centuries ago, a mechanism of fabulous ingenuity was created in Greece, a device capable of indicating exactly how the sky would look for decades to come -- the position of the moon and sun, lunar phases and even eclipses. But this incredible invention would be drowned in the sea and its secret forgotten for two thousand years.

This video is a tribute from Swiss clock-maker Hublot and film-maker Philippe Nicolet to this device, known as the Antikythera Mechanism, or the world's "first computer". The fragments of the Mechanism were discovered in 1901 by sponge divers near the island of Antikythera. It is kept since then at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, Greece.

For more than a century, researchers were trying to understand its functions. Since 2005, a pluridisciplinary research team, the "Antikythera Mechanism Research Project", is studying the Mechanism with the latest high tech available.

The results of this ongoing research has enabled the construction of many models. Amongst them, the unique mechanism of a watch, designed by Hublot as a tribute to the Mechanism, is incorporating the known functions of this mysterious and fascinating ancient Mechanism.

A model of the Antikythera Mechanism, built by the Aristotle University in Greece, together with the mechanism of the watch and this film in 3D are featuring in an exhibition about the Mechanism that is taking place in Paris, at the Musée des Arts et Métiers.

The original fragments of the Mechanism, its main models and the watch designed by Hublot are on display at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, Greece.

The Invention of Trousers: A History of the Garment That Transformed Humanity

Trousers, pants, slacks—nno matter the name, they are an integral part of our everyday wardrobe. What began as a practical solution to a practical problem has become a staple of fashion across cultures. But have you ever stopped to ponder the origins of this garment? When did our ancestors decide to ditch the tunic, robe, or loincloth in favor of trousers? In this article, we will delve into the intriguing history of the invention of trousers.

Prehistoric Beginnings

The exact origins of trousers remain somewhat unclear, largely due to the absence of ancient textiles that have survived through the millennia. However, archaeological evidence has provided some intriguing clues. In 2014, a study published in the journal Quaternary International discovered the earliest known examples of trousers in western China, dating back to around 3,000 to 3,300 BC.

These ancient trousers were made of wool and designed with straight legs and a wide crotch. This wide crotch, often referred to as a steppe crotch, had a slit that might have been used to tie the trousers around the waist. Archaeologists speculate that these trousers were invented for riding, as they provide protection while allowing the rider flexibility and freedom of movement.

Development and Spread

The use of trousers began to spread with the advent of horseback riding and the strategic advantage it provided for warfare. This new mode of transportation necessitated a new type of clothing that allowed for greater flexibility and protection. As the popularity of horseback riding grew, so did the prevalence of trousers.

Trousers found their way to the Mediterranean world through cultural contact with Persians and other cultures of the East. Greek historians such as Herodotus described the Persian use of trousers in the 5th century BC, and it wasn't long before the Greeks and Romans adopted this practical garment, although not without some cultural resistance, as it was initially seen as 'barbarian' dress.

It is worth noting that while trousers were predominantly a male garment in many cultures, women also wore trousers in certain societies, particularly those where horse riding was common for both genders.

Evolution through the Ages

Over the centuries, the basic design of trousers evolved in various directions according to cultural needs and aesthetic trends. Breeches, a type of trouser that ends just below the knee, became common in Europe from the 16th to the early 19th centuries. These were often worn with stockings and were a standard part of men's dress.

As Europe transitioned into the Industrial Revolution, the design of trousers changed again. The need for practical and durable clothing for factory and manual work led to the invention of denim jeans in the United States in the late 19th century, a style that has persisted to this day.

Meanwhile, women's fashion began to incorporate trousers more frequently in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the context of the women's rights movement. The advent of World Wars I and II accelerated this trend as many women entered the workforce and required practical clothing.

Trousers Today

In today's global society, trousers have transcended cultural boundaries and become a universally accepted form of clothing. They come in an endless variety of styles, from casual jeans to formal tuxedo pants, serving a plethora of purposes. The evolution of trousers continues in response to changes in societal norms, technology, and fashion trends.

Whether you're donning denim jeans for a casual outing or dressing up in a formal suit, remember that the trousers you wear are the result of a millennia-long journey, adapting to meet the needs of humans throughout history. The story of trousers is one of practicality and ingenuity, a testament to humanity's endless creativity and the remarkable evolution of culture.

Today, everybody wears trousers—men and women, young and old—at almost all occasions. But who invented the trousers? When? Where? Why? This documentary tells the story of an international research team’s pursuit to find answers to these questions. The camera accompanies the scientists to dry inner Asian archaeological excavation sites in China and the working tables of conservators; to laboratories of ancient climate and animal DNA research; to sheep shearer’s barns and fashion designer’s studios. Viewers can watch the team make discoveries and face insurmountable obstacles in the process of reverse engineering when they try to reproduce the oldest known trousers in the world. The documentary comprises unpublished film material, animation sequences, and music specially composed for this story. The film is the result of cooperation between archaeologists and students of Film University Babelsberg (Konrad Wolf).

Ancient Chinese Technology and Inventions That Changed The World

Ancient China is often lauded for its contributions to the advancement of arts, culture, and philosophy. However, its remarkable innovations in technology have left an indelible mark on the world, shaping the landscape of modern civilization in more ways than one. These groundbreaking inventions, developed hundreds, if not thousands, of years ago, continue to influence our lives to this day. Let's explore some of the most significant ancient Chinese technologies and inventions that changed the world.

1. Paper and Papermaking

Invented around the 2nd century BC during the Han Dynasty, paper has arguably been one of the most transformative Chinese inventions. The traditional method involved macerating plant fibers such as mulberry bark or hemp in water, followed by beating it into a slurry and then spreading this mixture on a flat piece of cloth to dry. Once dried, the resulting sheet could be used for writing, painting, and later printing.

This remarkable innovation not only revolutionized communication and record-keeping in ancient China but also paved the way for the proliferation of literature, arts, and science worldwide after it spread along the Silk Road to the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.

2. Gunpowder

Gunpowder, composed of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, was a Chinese invention of the Tang Dynasty around the 9th century. Originally conceived for medicinal and mystical purposes, it wasn't long before its explosive properties were harnessed for military use.

The invention of gunpowder marked the advent of a new era in warfare, leading to the development of explosives, firearms, and eventually artillery. Its use greatly influenced the strategies and outcomes of battles, significantly altering the trajectory of human history.

3. Printing

The Chinese invention of woodblock printing during the Tang Dynasty (around the 7th century) and movable type printing during the Song Dynasty (around the 11th century) revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge.

These printing techniques made it possible to produce books, newspapers, and other printed materials in large quantities, promoting literacy and enabling the wide spread of ideas, philosophies, and information. Printing played a crucial role in cultural, scientific, and political revolutions throughout the world.

4. The Compass

Another significant Chinese invention was the compass, invented during the Han Dynasty (around the 2nd century BC). Initially, it was used for divination, fortune-telling, and geomancy. By the Song Dynasty (960-1279), it was being employed for navigation at sea.

The compass dramatically enhanced maritime exploration and trade, making long voyages across the oceans more precise and safer. This navigational tool was instrumental in the Age of Exploration, opening up the world to global trade and interaction.

5. Silk

While silk is a natural material produced by silkworms, the technology of sericulture – the cultivation of silkworms for the production of silk – was a closely guarded secret in ancient China. Dating back to around 3,000 BC, the Silk Road eventually spread this luxurious fabric and the knowledge of its production across Asia and into Europe.

The influence of silk extended beyond fashion. Its trade had profound effects on economies and diplomacy, fostering cross-cultural exchanges between East and West.

6. Porcelain

Known in the West as 'China,' porcelain was another significant Chinese invention. Made by heating certain types of clay to high temperatures, porcelain was valued for its durability, thinness, and beauty.

Originating in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), Chinese porcelain was highly prized around the world, contributing to international trade and cultural exchange. It has also significantly influenced global dining and tea-drinking customs.

In conclusion, these inventions from ancient China have not only transformed the technological landscape but also shaped the course of human history. Their impact extends beyond the realms of science and technology, influencing economics, culture, and society on a global scale. The legacy of these remarkable ancient Chinese inventions is a testament to the ingenuity and creativity of this civilization, which continues to inspire us today.

List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

This list of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation lists the technological and civilisational achievements of the Indus Valley Civilisation, an ancient civilisation which flourished in the Bronze Age around the general region of the Indus River and Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is today Pakistan, and parts of India.

The extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation

Inventions

Button, ornamental: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilisation for ornamental purposes by 2000 BC. Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread. Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."

Shipyard: The world's oldest shipyard has been found in Lothal. It is situated 80 km south of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.

Cockfighting: Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilisation in what today is Pakistan by 2000 BC and one of the uses of the fighting cock. The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)—on the origins of cockfighting—holds: "The game fowl is probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The sport was popular in ancient times in the Indian subcontinent, China, the Persian Empire, and other Eastern countries and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524–460 BC). The sport spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. For a long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthusiastically that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century CE) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the pit."

An ancient well, and the city drainage canals, in Lothal, Gujarat, India

Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilisation's archaeological site at Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan and Dholavira, India. The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BC, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure. The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture. Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism. Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE. Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.

Bow Drill: Bow drills were used in Mehrgarh between the 4th and 5th millennium BC. This bow drill—used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and carnelian—was made of green jasper. Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley Civilisation and Iran one millennium later.

Public Baths: The earliest public baths are found in the ruins in of the Indus Valley Civilisation. According to John Keay, the "Great Bath" of Mohenjo Daro in present-day Pakistan was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.

Grid Plan: Rehman Dheri contains the earliest evidence of a grid-planned city in south Asia dated c. 3300 BC. By 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and other major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north–south and east–west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes.

Flush Toilet: Mohenjo-Daro circa 2800 BC is cited as having some of the most advanced, with toilets built into outer walls of homes. These toilets were Western-style, albeit a primitive form, with vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains.

Drainage System: The Indus Valley Civilisation had advanced sewerage and drainage systems. All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered gravity sewers, which lined the major streets.

Distillation: A terracota distillation apparatus in the Indus Valley in West Pakistan dates from around 3000 BC.

Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement in Pakistan on the westernmost outreaches of the civilisation

Cotton industry: The Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India.

Public Litter bins: Archaeologists have found several brick containers that were strategically located along the street junctions of Mohenjo-Daro specifically for garbage disposal.

Dentistry: The evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC. An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.

Touchstone: Found in excavations from Banawali, Haryana.

Signboard: One of the most significant discoveries at Dholavira was made in one of the side rooms of the northern gateway of the city, and is generally known as the Dholavira Signboard. The Harappans had arranged and set pieces of the mineral gypsum to form ten large symbols or letters on a big wooden board. At some point, the board fell flat on its face. The wood decayed, but the arrangement of the letters survived. The letters of the signboard are comparable to large bricks that were used in nearby walls. Each sign is about 37 cm (15 in) high and the board on which the letters were inscribed was about 3 m (9.8 ft) long. The inscription is one of the longest in the Indus script, with one symbol appearing four times, and this and its large size and public nature make it a key piece of evidence cited by scholars arguing that the Indus script represents full literacy. A four-sign inscription with large letters on a sand stone is also found at this site, considered the first of such inscriptions on sand stone at any of the Harappan sites.

One of the water reservoirs, with steps, at Dholavira

Hydraulic Engineering: "The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation, harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic engineering, given the state of technology in the third millennium BC" says R.S.Bist, Joint Director General (Rtd.), Archaeological Survey of India. One of the unique features of Dholavira is the sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs, the earliest found anywhere in the world, built completely of stone. The city had massive reservoirs, three of which are exposed. They were used for storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water diverted from two nearby rivulets. This clearly came in response to the desert climate and conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall. A seasonal stream which runs in a north–south direction near the site was dammed at several points to collect water.

Dams: In Neolithic Mehrgarh pre-Harappan phase (7000-3200 BC) people had developed a water storage system called Bund to trap rain and torrential waters in the semi-arid region of Kach in-between the Indus river and Balochistan mountains where the seasonal Bolan river flows. Stone walls were built along the slope of torrential river beds to serve as reservoir dams, restrict flow of water and for diverting water into canals for irrigation.

Stadium: the world's earliest stadium with terraced stands was constructed at Dholavira and Juni Kuran. Two stadiums have been identified at the ancient site, one is considered a ceremonial ground, another, a small stadium. At Juni Kuran, two separate stadiums for commoners and the elite have been discovered.

Bronze sculpture: Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro belonging to the Harappan civilisation dating back to 2500 BC is said to be the first bronze statue.

Lost wax casting: a detailed, full-field photoluminescence study of a 6,000 year old copper "wheel" amulet from Mehrgarh in Balochistan has opened the door to many new facts about this period of history. This study by Ipanema, the European center for the study of ancient materials, believes that this is the oldest known example of the "lost wax" casting technique, one of the most important innovations in the history of metallurgy.

Shampoo: Pre-Harappan level of Banawali (2750-2500 BC), Haryana have revealed traces of a mixture of shikakai with soap nuts and Amla (Indian Gooseberry) of what would constitute herbal shampoo, exhibiting ancient roots of South Asian hygiene.

Mordant (Dye Fixing): Mordants for fixing dyes were used since the Indus Valley Civilisation, it exhibited Indian mastery over clothes dyeing which was unrivalled until the invention of western chemical dyes.

Stoneware: Earliest stonewares, predecessors of porcelain have been recorded at the Indus Valley Civilisation sites of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, they were used for making stoneware bangles.

Seven Stones: An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas and has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilisation.

English Bond: This bond has alternating stretching and heading courses, with the headers centred over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course aligned. Harappan architecture in South Asia was the first use, anywhere in the world, of so-called English bond in building with bricks.

Saw, modern: True saws with modern teeth were a Harappan invention.

Needle's eye: The eye of the needle was another Harappan contribution.

Etched Carnelian beads: are a type of ancient decorative beads made from carnelian with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by the Harappans during the 3rd millennium BC and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west.

Finished Ivory Goods: Finished Ivory products like kohl sticks, pins, awls, hooks, toggles, combs, gamesmen, dice, inlay and other personal ornaments are considered to have its origin form Harappan sites.

Discoveries

Gemstones and Lapis Lazuli: Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana, which is the oldest site of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Sesame oil: Sesame seeds were one of the first crops processed for oil as well as one of the earliest condiments. Sesame was cultivated during the Indus Valley Civilisation and was the main oil crop. It was probably exported to Mesopotamia around 2500 BC.

Pashmina: Samples of wool fibres discovered from corroded copper artifacts from Harappa dating back to the Indus Valley Civilisation are extremely fine and resemble Pashmina and Shatoosh.

The "Greek Fire": A Byzantine Flamethrower of Death

by the archaeologist editor group

The annals of military history are replete with weapons that have changed the course of wars, but few have been as mysterious and terrifying as the Greek Fire. For centuries, this incendiary weapon of the Byzantine Empire instilled dread in the hearts of its enemies and played a pivotal role in the defense of Constantinople. Let’s delve into the history, mechanics, and secrets of this ancient weapon that was centuries ahead of its time.

Origins

Greek Fire, known as "Υγρό Πυρ" (Ygro Pyr) or "Liquid Fire" in Byzantine texts, was primarily used by the Byzantine Empire, especially during naval warfare. Its first recorded use was by the Byzantines in 678 AD during the Arab-Byzantine Wars. The Arabs, attempting to lay siege to Constantinople, found themselves under assault from a flame that water could not douse, turning the tides of the battle.

The exact origins of Greek Fire remain shrouded in mystery, but many historians believe it was developed in the 7th century by a Christian Greek architect and chemist named Kallinikos of Heliopolis. It's said that Kallinikos fled from the Arab conquest of Syria to the Byzantine capital, bringing the secret of the fearsome weapon with him.

Mechanics

What made Greek Fire especially formidable was its unique deployment method. The Byzantines used a tube or siphon, not unlike a flamethrower, to spray the liquid fire onto enemy ships or personnel. These tubes, known as "siphonophorai," could be mounted on ships or fortifications.

When lit, the concoction would ignite, casting a terrifying wall of fire towards the target. The fact that the fire clung to surfaces and was notoriously difficult to extinguish (water was said to exacerbate it) only amplified its psychological and physical impact.

Secret Composition

The precise ingredients and process of making Greek Fire remain a subject of debate and speculation. What's clear is that it was a petroleum-based mixture, likely involving crude oil, pitch, or naphtha. Some theories suggest the inclusion of sulfur, resin, lime, or even certain organic components like animal fats or oils. The Byzantines went to great lengths to keep the formula a state secret, with the production closely guarded and centralized. This secrecy is why, despite numerous attempts by enemies and allies alike, the exact replication of Greek Fire was never achieved.

Legacy and Decline

The Byzantines’ mastery of Greek Fire helped repel several sieges on Constantinople and ensured naval dominance for the empire in the Mediterranean for many years. However, its use started to decline by the 13th century, possibly due to the loss of the territories that supplied its ingredients or perhaps because of the emergence of alternative military technologies.

Today, Greek Fire stands as a symbol of Byzantine ingenuity and resilience. Its aura of mystery and the visual spectacle it must have created in naval battles make it one of the most fascinating weapons in ancient warfare.

While the mysteries of Greek Fire may never be fully unraveled, its legacy in the annals of military innovation remains undeniable. Serving as a testament to the scientific and military prowess of the Byzantine Empire, Greek Fire remains a beacon of ancient ingenuity and a vivid reminder of the lengths civilizations will go to defend their territories and way of life.

The ancient 'computer' that simply shouldn't exist

A hundred and twenty years ago, divers discovered a shipwreck off the island of Antikythera in Greece. What they found changed our understanding of human history.

The mysterious Antikythera Mechanism has captured the imagination of archaeologists, mathematicians, and scientists ever since. Now, using the latest 3D x-ray and modelling technology, experts are unravelling the secrets of what this machine may have been capable of.

The Antikythera mechanism is an ancient Greek hand-powered orrery, described as the oldest example of an analogue computer used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses decades in advance. It could also be used to track the four-year cycle of athletic games which was similar to an Olympiad, the cycle of the ancient Olympic Games.

This artefact was among wreckage retrieved from a shipwreck off the coast of the Greek island Antikythera in 1901. On 17 May 1902 it was identified as containing a gear by archaeologist Valerios Stais. The device, housed in the remains of a 34 cm × 18 cm × 9 cm (13.4 in × 7.1 in × 3.5 in) wooden box, was found as one lump, later separated into three main fragments which are now divided into 82 separate fragments after conservation efforts. Four of these fragments contain gears, while inscriptions are found on many others. The largest gear is approximately 13 centimeters (5.1 in) in diameter and originally had 223 teeth.

In 2008, a team led by Mike Edmunds and Tony Freeth at Cardiff University used modern computer x-ray tomography and high resolution surface scanning to image inside fragments of the crust-encased mechanism and read the faintest inscriptions that once covered the outer casing of the machine. This suggests it had 37 meshing bronze gears enabling it to follow the movements of the Moon and the Sun through the zodiac, to predict eclipses and to model the irregular orbit of the Moon, where the Moon's velocity is higher in its perigee than in its apogee.

This motion was studied in the 2nd century BC by astronomer Hipparchus of Rhodes, and it is speculated that he may have been consulted in the machine's construction. There is speculation that a portion of the mechanism is missing and it also calculated the positions of the five classical planets.

The Antikythera Mechanism: A Shocking Discovery from Ancient Greece

The Antikythera mechanism is an ancient Greek hand-powered orrery, described as the oldest example of an analogue computer used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses decades in advance. It could also be used to track the four-year cycle of athletic games which was similar to an Olympiad, the cycle of the ancient Olympic Games.

This artefact was among wreckage retrieved from a shipwreck off the coast of the Greek island Antikythera in 1901. On 17 May 1902 it was identified as containing a gear by archaeologist Valerios Stais. The device, housed in the remains of a 34 cm × 18 cm × 9 cm (13.4 in × 7.1 in × 3.5 in) wooden box, was found as one lump, later separated into three main fragments which are now divided into 82 separate fragments after conservation efforts. Four of these fragments contain gears, while inscriptions are found on many others. The largest gear is approximately 13 centimeters (5.1 in) in diameter and originally had 223 teeth.

In 2008, a team led by Mike Edmunds and Tony Freeth at Cardiff University used modern computer x-ray tomography and high resolution surface scanning to image inside fragments of the crust-encased mechanism and read the faintest inscriptions that once covered the outer casing of the machine. This suggests it had 37 meshing bronze gears enabling it to follow the movements of the Moon and the Sun through the zodiac, to predict eclipses and to model the irregular orbit of the Moon, where the Moon's velocity is higher in its perigee than in its apogee.

This motion was studied in the 2nd century BC by astronomer Hipparchus of Rhodes, and it is speculated that he may have been consulted in the machine's construction. There is speculation that a portion of the mechanism is missing and it also calculated the positions of the five classical planets.

As part of an international team, Dr Tony Freeth has been a central figure in an extraordinary voyage of discovery: every new revelation has reinforced a sense of shock about this highly sophisticated ancient Greek astronomical calculating machine. It is one of the true wonders of the ancient world.