Daulatabad Fort: The Rock-Hewn Fortress That Defied Time and Invaders

In the heart of Maharashtra, India, stands a fortress unlike any other — a monolithic marvel known as Daulatabad Fort, or Devagiri ("Hill of the Gods"). This ancient citadel, carved into a single rock formation, is a testament to the architectural ingenuity and military strategy of its creators. With its imposing cliffs rising 50 meters high and a labyrinthine design, Daulatabad has captivated historians, archaeologists, and travelers for centuries. It is not merely a stronghold but a symbol of endurance and an echo of the dynasties that once ruled its walls.

The Birth of a Legendary Fortress

Daulatabad Fort's story begins in the 12th century with the Yadava dynasty, who recognized the strategic potential of this rocky hill. Devagiri was initially chosen as a capital due to its natural defenses. The steep cliffs and towering rock face provided an almost impenetrable barrier against invading forces, while the surrounding plains offered a clear view of approaching armies. This unique location enabled the Yadavas to fortify the site further, transforming it into one of the most secure fortresses in the Indian subcontinent.

The fort's construction is a marvel of medieval engineering. The builders carved the fortress directly into the rock, creating a seamless blend between natural landscape and man-made architecture. The outer walls and bastions are hewn from the living rock, making it nearly impossible for enemies to breach the defenses. The fort's design exemplifies an ingenious use of the terrain, a principle that would be adopted by later rulers who sought to fortify their own domains.

A Fortress That Changed Empires

Daulatabad's strategic importance made it a coveted prize for many rulers throughout history. In the 14th century, the fort was seized by Alauddin Khalji’s forces during the Delhi Sultanate’s expansion into the Deccan region. However, it was the decision of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that truly marked a turning point in the history of Daulatabad.

In 1327, Tughlaq famously moved his entire capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in a controversial and ill-fated attempt to consolidate power in the south. The forced migration of Delhi's population, spanning nearly 1,500 kilometers, was an ambitious and disastrous plan. Though the capital was eventually moved back to Delhi, this episode underscored the perceived invincibility of Daulatabad Fort. It was believed to be so secure that Tughlaq saw it as the ideal seat of his empire.

Unraveling the Ingenious Architecture

The architectural brilliance of Daulatabad Fort lies not only in its location but in its intricate defenses. The approach to the fort is designed to bewilder and exhaust attackers. The pathways wind steeply, forcing invaders into narrow, twisting passages where they are vulnerable to counterattacks. The fort features a complex series of moats, gates, and walls that create a layered defense system.

One of the most famous defensive features is the "Andheri" or dark passage, a narrow, pitch-black tunnel that winds through the rock. This passage was designed to disorient invaders and lead them into traps, such as concealed pits or dead ends. Defenders would have the advantage in these dark, confined spaces, making any assault a deadly endeavor.

Another remarkable feature is the "Chand Minar," a 30-meter tall minaret built in the 15th century by the Bahmani Sultanate, who later controlled the fort. The minaret, constructed from red stone, served as both a watchtower and a symbol of victory. It adds a striking element to the fort’s silhouette, showcasing the blend of architectural influences from different rulers over time.

The Legacy of Invincibility

Daulatabad Fort's legacy as an impenetrable stronghold is reinforced by its history of withstanding numerous sieges. During the reign of the Bahmani and later the Mughal empires, the fort saw countless attempts at conquest. Yet, it was rarely taken by force; more often, it changed hands through strategic negotiations or betrayal rather than open battle.

In the 17th century, the fort played a significant role during the Maratha-Mughal conflicts. The Maratha leader, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, made attempts to capture it but faced immense difficulty due to its formidable defenses. The fort was eventually controlled by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, who recognized its strategic importance in controlling the Deccan region.

A Timeless Monument of India’s Heritage

Today, Daulatabad Fort stands as a monument of India’s diverse and tumultuous history. The site offers visitors a glimpse into the past, where each stone and passage tells a story of ambition, warfare, and resilience. Walking through the fort, one can still sense the echo of ancient battles and the strategic minds that once shaped its defenses.

The ascent to the summit rewards visitors with breathtaking panoramic views of the surrounding countryside, a reminder of why this fortress was deemed the "Hill of the Gods." The experience is both physically demanding and spiritually uplifting, as one navigates the steep stairways and dark tunnels that have remained unchanged for centuries.

Daulatabad Fort is not just a relic of history; it is a living testament to the skill and vision of its creators. It continues to inspire awe and wonder, standing defiant against time, much like it did against the countless armies that sought to conquer it. For those seeking to explore the depths of India’s architectural and cultural heritage, a visit to Daulatabad is a journey back in time — to a place where rock, history, and legend converge.

Visiting Daulatabad: A Practical Guide

For those planning a visit, Daulatabad Fort is easily accessible from Aurangabad, Maharashtra. It is best explored in the cooler months, between October and March, when the weather is pleasant for trekking up the steep slopes. Be prepared for a challenging climb, but rest assured, the journey is well worth the effort.

In the shadow of the towering cliffs, where ancient dynasties once stood guard, one can truly appreciate the grandeur of Daulatabad Fort — a masterpiece of stone, strategy, and resilience that has stood the test of time.

Sensual Divinity: The Sexual Artistic Trends of 3rd Century Ancient Indian Sculpture

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The early centuries of the Common Era marked a significant period in the history of Indian art, particularly in the realm of sculpture, where sensuality and spirituality seamlessly converged to create evocative representations of divine and human forms. Around 200 AD, the region of Mathura emerged as a pivotal center for artistic development, where the sculpting of human and divine figures reflected not only remarkable craftsmanship but also profound religious and cultural symbolism. This era, characterized by its intricate and sensuous depictions of the human body, particularly the female form, showcased a blend of artistic innovation and spiritual representation.

The Cultural and Religious Context

In ancient Indian culture, religious beliefs were deeply intertwined with the visual arts. The creation of sculptures was not merely an aesthetic pursuit but a medium to express the divine nature of gods, goddesses, and semi-divine beings. The period around 200 AD was influenced by both Hindu and Buddhist religious narratives, with sculptures embodying themes of fertility, prosperity, and divine femininity. This convergence of art and spirituality was epitomized through the depiction of nature spirits known as yakshis, who were believed to symbolize the generative power of the earth and its natural bounty.

Intense Representations of the Feminine Form

The sculptures of this era are often noted for their intense and exaggerated features, particularly in the representation of the female body. These figures typically displayed ample curves, adorned with intricate jewelry and clothing that emphasized, rather than concealed, their physical forms. The sensuous portrayal of the feminine was not intended to evoke mere eroticism but was symbolic of fertility and life-giving energy. The detailed depiction of voluptuous hips, full breasts, and a confident stance was meant to convey a sense of nurturing abundance and the divine aspects of womanhood.

This celebration of the feminine form was deeply rooted in the cultural recognition of the divine feminine, embodied by goddesses such as Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity, and Parvati, the consort of Shiva. Additionally, yakshis, as nature spirits, were popular subjects, serving as representations of fertility and the vital forces of nature.

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Notable Examples of Sculptural Masterpieces

Several surviving sculptures from this period illustrate the artistic mastery and thematic focus of the time:

1. The Terracotta Plaques of Bengal: These intricate plaques, often depicting divine and semi-divine figures with sensuous, dynamic postures, showcase the emphasis on fertility and abundance.

2. The Kushan Period Yakshis: Distinctive for their full-bodied depictions, these sculptures highlight the elaborate detailing of adornments and the tribhanga pose, emphasizing movement and grace.

3. The Nagarjunakonda Sculptures: Found in Andhra Pradesh, these depict various scenes from life and mythology, including figures of goddesses and yakshis with flowing garments and bejeweled bodies that enhance their sensual appeal.

4. The Ganga and Yamuna Sculptures at the Temple Entrances: These river goddesses, often placed at the entrance of temples, symbolize purity and prosperity, depicted with detailed carvings that celebrate the divine feminine form.

5. The Yakshi of Didarganj: One of the most celebrated sculptures, the Didarganj Yakshi, hails from the 3rd century BCE but continued to inspire artists in the following centuries. This sandstone statue features an exquisitely carved figure holding a fly-whisk, adorned with heavy necklaces and a flowing garment that accentuates her curvaceous form.

6. The Mathura Yakshi: Originating from Mathura itself, this sculpture exemplifies the region’s style with a robust, sensuous depiction of the female body. The yakshi figures from Mathura were often depicted standing in graceful tribhanga (triple-bend) poses that conveyed fluidity and life, emphasizing their association with growth and fertility.

7. The Standing Buddha of Mathura: While not focused solely on the feminine, the Standing Buddha sculpture from this era is noteworthy for integrating the naturalistic and somewhat sensual depiction of the human body with spiritual themes. This sculpture shows the Buddha with soft, rounded features and a serene expression, embodying both the physical and spiritual ideals of the time.

Symbolism and Interpretation

The emphasis on the human body, particularly the feminine form, had a deep symbolic resonance. The lush depictions signified the interconnectedness of human beauty, divine power, and the earth’s fertility. To ancient viewers, these sculptures evoked awe and reverence, serving as reminders of the sacred nature of life and creation. Such representations aligned with the broader cultural acknowledgment of shakti, the divine feminine energy that pervades the universe.

The artistic trends of 200 AD in India, especially from regions like Mathura, represent a profound fusion of spirituality and sensuality. The sculptures, marked by their intense and beautiful depictions of the human form, continue to fascinate historians and art enthusiasts for their masterful craftsmanship and rich cultural symbolism. They stand as testaments to an era that celebrated the sanctity of life and the divine feminine, intertwining the physical with the metaphysical in ways that still resonate in modern interpretations of art and spirituality.

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To support further reading, here are some relevant and credible sources for the topic of ancient Indian art and sculpture:

1. The British Museum's South Asia Collection: British Museum - South Asia Collection

2. Khan Academy - Art History on Ancient India: Khan Academy - Indian Art

3. The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Met Museum - Indian Sculpture

4. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI): Archaeological Survey of India

5. JSTOR and Project MUSE for academic papers and in-depth analyses: JSTOR Project MUSE

These resources provide insights into the cultural and artistic context of ancient Indian sculptures, their symbolism, and their continued significance.

What is the Elamo-Dravidian Linguistic Hypothesis?

The Elamo-Dravidian linguistic hypothesis is a proposition in the field of historical linguistics suggesting a genealogical relationship between the Elamite language, once spoken in ancient Elam (modern-day southwestern Iran), and the Dravidian languages, primarily spoken in southern India and parts of eastern and central India. This hypothesis posits that both language families might have descended from a common ancestral language, implying a shared linguistic and perhaps cultural heritage.

Background and Development of the Hypothesis

Elamite Language

Elamite was the language of the ancient Elamite civilization, flourishing from the 3rd millennium BCE to the 1st millennium BCE. Elamite texts have been discovered in cuneiform script, primarily from the ancient cities of Susa and Persepolis. Despite its relatively well-documented corpus, Elamite remains difficult to classify, showing no clear affiliation with neighboring language families such as Indo-European or Semitic.

Dravidian Languages

The Dravidian language family includes major languages such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, along with several other languages spoken in various regions of India and neighboring countries. These languages have a rich literary tradition and historical depth, with evidence of their existence dating back several millennia.

Proponents and Arguments

Linguistic Evidence

The primary advocate of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis was David McAlpin, who, in the 1970s and 1980s, presented several arguments based on linguistic data:

1. Vocabulary Parallels: McAlpin identified cognates between Elamite and Dravidian languages, suggesting common vocabulary items that might point to a shared ancestry.

2. Phonological Similarities: He noted certain phonological features, such as sound correspondences, that appear consistent between the two language groups.

3. Morphological Parallels: McAlpin also highlighted similarities in morphological structures, particularly in verb conjugations and noun declensions.

Archaeological and Genetic Evidence

Supporters of the hypothesis sometimes refer to archaeological and genetic evidence to bolster their claims.

1. Cultural Connections: Some argue that there might have been ancient migrations or cultural contacts between the Elamite region and the Dravidian-speaking regions, facilitated by trade or other interactions.

2. Genetic Studies: Genetic studies have occasionally been cited to suggest ancient population movements that could support the hypothesis of a common origin for the Elamite and Dravidian-speaking peoples.

The hypothesized tree of the Elamo-Dravidian family

Criticisms and Challenges

Despite the intriguing nature of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis, it has faced significant criticism and skepticism within the linguistic community.

1. Insufficient Evidence: Critics argue that the linguistic evidence presented by McAlpin is not robust enough to conclusively demonstrate a genealogical link. The similarities might be coincidental or the result of language contact rather than a common ancestry.

2. Lack of Consensus: The broader linguistic community has not reached a consensus on the validity of the hypothesis. Many linguists remain unconvinced due to the lack of comprehensive evidence and the speculative nature of some of the connections.

3. Alternative Explanations: Some suggest that similarities between Elamite and Dravidian might be better explained by language contact or borrowing rather than a direct genealogical relationship.

Conclusion

The Elamo-Dravidian linguistic hypothesis remains a controversial and largely speculative theory within historical linguistics. While it presents an intriguing possibility of a shared heritage between the ancient Elamite civilization and the Dravidian-speaking populations of India, the evidence currently available is not sufficient to draw definitive conclusions. Further research, potentially involving more comprehensive linguistic, archaeological, and genetic data, would be necessary to provide a clearer picture of any potential connections between these language families.

The Origins of the Romani People: A Journey from Ancient India to Modern Diasporas

The origins of the Romani people, commonly known as the Roma, have long intrigued scholars and historians. Recent advancements in genetic, linguistic, and historical research have substantially elucidated the roots and migratory patterns of this enigmatic group. The Romani are not just a cultural or social entity but represent a unique amalgamation of genetic lineages, languages, and traditions, pointing to a complex history that spans continents and centuries.

Genetic and Linguistic Roots

Genetic studies have played a pivotal role in tracing the origins of the Romani people back to the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal data has shown that the Romani possess genetic markers that are predominantly found among the peoples of Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana in India. This genetic evidence strongly supports a South Asian origin, consistent with the linguistic ties that link the Romani language, Romani, to the Indo-Aryan language family.

Romani language itself is a crucial piece of the puzzle. It retains a substantial lexical stock from Sanskrit and Prakrit, alongside grammatical structures that align closely with those found in modern northern Indian languages. This linguistic connection underscores the theory that the ancestors of the Romani departed from India around the first millennium CE, possibly due to the socio-political upheavals brought about by the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni and subsequent Islamic conquests which disrupted the established societies.

Historical Migrations

The migration of the Romani from India towards the west marks a significant chapter in their history. Initially moving through what is now Iran, the Romani made their way into the Byzantine Empire by the 11th century. From there, they spread across Europe, with records from the 14th century marking their presence in the Balkans and later in Western Europe by the 15th century. Each phase of this migration left profound impacts on the Romani culture, integrating elements from Persian, Byzantine, and various European societies.

The mobility of the Romani people is a testament to their resilience and adaptability. As they traveled, they adopted various professions that facilitated nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyles, often working as craftsmen, musicians, and traders. This adaptability was both a response to and a catalyst for the often hostile receptions they faced in medieval Europe, where they were frequently marginalized and subjected to severe discrimination and legislation that hindered their integration into settled societies.

The scientific inquiry into the origins of the Romani has unveiled a narrative that begins in the Indian subcontinent and weaves through the Middle East to the heart of Europe, revealing a story of movement, adaptation, and survival against considerable odds. Understanding where the Romani people come from not only enriches our comprehension of their unique cultural identity but also enhances our appreciation for their significant contributions to the cultural tapestries of many nations. By recognizing their origins and the historical currents that have shaped their diaspora, we foster a deeper respect for the diversity and resilience of the Romani people.

The Enigmatic Origins of the Dravidian Languages: New Study Traces a 4,400-year-old Ancestral Component

The genetic and linguistic tapestry of the Indian subcontinent is remarkably complex, consisting of a rich mosaic of ancestries and languages that have evolved over thousands of years. Among these, the Dravidian languages, spoken by millions in the southern and central parts of India, present a fascinating case of linguistic and genetic continuity that spans several millennia.

Origins of Dravidian Speakers

Recent research has unveiled a novel ancestral component in tribes speaking Dravidian languages, particularly identified in the Koraga tribe. This component, distinct from the well-documented Ancestral North Indian (ANI) and Ancestral South Indian (ASI) ancestries, suggests a basal Middle Eastern origin. The Koraga, an indigenous tribe from the southwestern coast of India, demonstrate a unique genetic signature that aligns with the Dravidian languages they speak.

Connection to the Indus Valley Civilization

The discovery of this ancestral component has significant implications for our understanding of the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world's earliest urban cultures that flourished along the basins of the Indus River. The genetic lineage underpinning Dravidian speakers appears to have diverged around the dawn of the Indus Valley Civilization, which suggests a deep-rooted connection between this ancient civilization and modern Dravidian languages.

Fig. 1 Population structure in the Indian cline. (a) PCA plot show a clustering pattern along the ANI- ASI cline. Red ellipses represent clusters which also include North Dravidian language communities sensu lato: Brahui, Koraga, Gauḍa, Tānti, Bāgdi, Oraon, Kota, Birhor and Mahar. Kota and Mahar are found in the ANI-ASI cline as well. Grey ellipses represent clusters that have drifted away from the ANI-ASI cline, which includes both Dravidian and other groups: Burusho, Kannaḍa and coastal populations of Karnāṭaka and Kerala, Paniya, Koṇḍa Reddy, Kamar and one Birhor sample. (b)

The study indicates that this Proto-Dravidian ancestry emerged around 4,400 years ago, possibly originating from the region between the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley. This timeline and location suggest that the Dravidian languages may have originated in the Indus Valley itself before spreading southwards across the Indian subcontinent.

Genetic Evidence and Linguistic Correlations

The genetic makeup of the Koraga tribe and its correlation with their linguistic characteristics offer compelling evidence of a continuous cultural and genetic lineage. Advanced genomic analyses, including SNP genotyping and admixture modeling, have shown that the Koraga people not only retain a significant portion of this ancient Dravidian ancestry but also exhibit clear genetic distinctions from neighboring populations.

These findings are supported by linguistic studies, which trace the Dravidian languages back to a common ancestral language that might have been spoken by the early inhabitants of the Indus Valley. This ancestral language, Proto-Dravidian, appears to have diversified into various regional languages that are still spoken today across southern India.

Fig. 4 Maximum Likelihood (ML) tree showing the genetic relatedness between the Koraga and selected South Asian populations present in Dataset 3, using TreeMix v1.13.

Implications for Historical Linguistics and Archaeogenetics

The convergence of genetic and linguistic evidence points to the Indus Valley region as a significant cultural and linguistic hub in ancient South Asia. This research not only helps in understanding the genetic origins of the Dravidian languages but also provides insights into the migration patterns and social structures of one of the world's earliest civilizations.

The elucidation of a 4,400-year-old ancestral component specific to Dravidian-speaking tribes enhances our understanding of the prehistoric demography of South Asia and the intricate web of human migrations that shaped the subcontinent's history. Moreover, it emphasizes the need for integrated studies that combine genetics, archaeology, and linguistics to reconstruct the complex puzzle of human history.

Exploring the Architectural Genius of the Harappan Civilization

The Harappan civilization, flourishing from 2600 to 1900 BC, remains a hallmark of ancient urban planning and architectural brilliance. Nestled within the fertile plains of the Indus River Valley, this civilization's remnants, such as the ancient city of Moenjodaro, provide a fascinating glimpse into a society that prioritized functionality, innovation, and sustainability in its construction techniques. Unlike its contemporaries, the Harappan architecture was devoid of foreign influences, drawing instead on a deep understanding of local needs and environmental conditions.

Unique Architectural Features

Harappan architecture is distinguished by its utilitarian approach. This civilization was among the pioneers in creating separate quarters for workers, reflecting a sophisticated understanding of urban space and social organization. Unlike other ancient cities that might have been designed as a reflection of contemporary aesthetic values or religious beliefs, Harappan cities were laid out with a clear focus on practicality and efficiency.

The city of Moenjodaro, along with other Harappan sites, showcases a remarkable uniformity in urban planning. The cities were protected by defensive walls, encompassing a citadel that housed administrative or religious buildings and a lower town where the populace resided. This separation underscores a well-thought-out social hierarchy and administrative control.

Innovations in Urban Planning

A striking feature of Harappan architecture is its geometric precision. The use of geometric tools to plan the city's layout demonstrates an advanced understanding of mathematics and engineering. Streets and roadways, often made of baked bricks known for their durability, were laid out in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. This not only facilitated the efficient movement of people and goods but also contributed to the effective management of water and waste, a testament to civilization's foresight in urban sanitation.

The emphasis on cardinal directions in the layout of rural villages and the alignment of residences along streets further illustrates the Harappans' meticulous planning. The presence of rectangular blocks divided by streets and the introduction of trash cans reveal a society that valued order, cleanliness, and communal living.

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Challenges to Preservation

The archaeological significance of Harappa has faced numerous threats over the years. During British and French colonial rule, bricks from ancient ruins were repurposed for building railway tracks, causing irreversible damage to the site. Moreover, the modern village of Harappa, located less than a kilometer from the ancient site, has been a center of controversy, especially with the aborted amusement park project in 2005 that unearthed numerous artifacts, highlighting the ongoing tension between development and preservation.

Legacy and Influence

The architectural legacy of the Harappan civilization extends far beyond its immediate geographical and temporal confines. The principles of urban planning, water management, and community living embodied in Harappan cities have left an indelible mark on subsequent civilizations within the Indian subcontinent. The utilitarian focus, coupled with an absence of ostentation in architectural designs, sets the Harappan civilization apart from its peers, making it a subject of enduring fascination and study.

In conclusion, the Harappan civilization's approach to architecture and urban planning underscores a profound understanding of the interplay between humans and their environment. The ruins of Moenjodaro and other sites offer invaluable insights into a society that, despite the absence of grand monuments, achieved remarkable sophistication in creating sustainable and functional urban spaces. As we continue to explore and interpret these ancient ruins, the Harappan civilization serves as a powerful reminder of the complexities of ancient societies and the enduring legacy of their architectural innovations.

Indus Valley Civilization: Hindu or Dravidian?

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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1. THE LANGUAGE OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORDS AND THE RIGVEDA

3. THE JALLIKATTU SEAL FOUND AT MOHENJODARO AND THE PROTO-SHIVA SEAL

4. THE ARYAN INVASION THEORY

5. THE ROLE OF NATIONALISM AND COLONIALISM

6. THE RACIAL NATIVISM OF HINDUTVA IDEOLOGY

7. GENETICS AND THE ROOTS OF ANCIENT INDIAN CIVILIZATIONS

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The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, was one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, existing approximately from 3300–1300 BCE in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. This civilization is renowned for its planned cities, sophisticated drainage systems, and striking craftwork. However, many aspects of the IVC, including its language, religion, and the ethnicity of its people, remain enigmatic, largely due to the undeciphered script associated with it. This has led to various theories, debates, and interpretations about whether the IVC was Hindu or Dravidian, with implications extending to contemporary politics and historiography.

The Language of the Indus Valley Civilization

The undeciphered script of the IVC is one of the main reasons why the civilization's linguistic affiliations remain unclear. These symbols, typically found on seals, pottery, and other artifacts, are yet to be conclusively deciphered. Some scholars, like Asko Parpola, propose that the script represents a form of the Dravidian language, still spoken today in South India and parts of Pakistan. This theory draws on similarities between the IVC and later Dravidian cultures, such as the worship of certain animals and symbols. However, this remains a hypothesis due to the lack of decisive evidence.

In contrast, others suggest that the language of the IVC was of the Indo-European family, which includes Sanskrit, the liturgical language of Hinduism, and several modern languages of Northern India. This theory often relies on the proposed links between the IVC and the Vedic culture, which is the foundation of Hinduism.

Yuri Knorozov and Asko Parpola are two scholars who have made significant contributions to the study of the Indus Valley script, with both suggesting possible links to the Dravidian language family.

Yuri Knorozov was a Soviet linguist renowned for his work on deciphering the Mayan script. He turned his attention to the Indus script in the 1960s, applying similar principles of decipherment as he did to the Mayan glyphs. His preliminary work suggested that the Indus script might represent a form of the Dravidian language. However, due to the inherent challenges of deciphering an ancient script without a 'Rosetta Stone' (a bilingual inscription that could provide a key to decipherment), his proposed readings of the Indus script have not been universally accepted.

Asko Parpola, a Finnish scholar, has built upon Knorozov's work and has been one of the most prominent advocates of the Dravidian hypothesis for the Indus script. Parpola's approach combines linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence to support his argument. His interpretation of the Indus script relies heavily on the rebus principle, where a symbol represents a word that sounds like another word. However, like Knorozov's work, Parpola's theories have been subject to debate and have not gained universal acceptance among scholars.

Both Knorozov and Parpola's theories underscore the potential link between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Dravidian-speaking cultures of South India. However, these theories remain hypothetical due to the lack of definitive evidence. The Indus script remains undeciphered, and its relationship to any known language or language family, including Dravidian, is still uncertain. The decipherment of the Indus script would undoubtedly provide invaluable insights into the Indus Valley Civilization, but until then, it remains one of the most tantalizing mysteries of ancient history.

Archaeological Records and the Rig Veda

Archaeological findings from the IVC have shown evidence of ritualistic practices, fertility cults, and the worship of certain animals, suggesting a complex religious system. However, connecting this system to Hinduism or Dravidian religions is contentious due to the lack of explicit iconographic or textual evidence. There's also an ongoing debate about whether certain symbols and figures, like the so-called "proto-Shiva" seal, represent early forms of Hindu deities or whether these interpretations reflect a biased projection of later religious ideas onto the IVC.

On the other hand, the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Hindu scriptures, offers a different perspective. Some verses in the Rig Veda hint at an eastward migration of the Vedic people, possibly indicating an interaction with the IVC. However, there is no direct reference to the IVC in the Rig Veda, leading some to argue that the Vedic culture was distinct and possibly subsequent to the IVC.

The Rig Veda is the oldest among the four Vedas, which are the most ancient Hindu scriptures. Composed in an early form of Sanskrit, the Rig Veda is a collection of over a thousand hymns dedicated to various deities. These hymns are believed to have been composed by different seers (rishis) and passed down orally for centuries before being committed to writing.

Interpretation of the Rig Veda has been a subject of significant scholarly discourse, both within and outside the tradition. The text contains intricate and often ambiguous hymns that are rich in symbolism and metaphor, which have led to multiple and sometimes contrasting interpretations.

1. The Ritualistic Interpretation: This is one of the earliest and most traditional interpretations of the Rig Veda. The hymns are understood as invocations and praises to various deities, to be recited during rituals. Deities like Agni (Fire), Indra (Warrior God and King of Gods), Varuna (God of Cosmic Order), and others are propitiated for blessings, protection, and the maintenance of cosmic order (Rta).

2. The Historical Interpretation: Some scholars, particularly during the colonial period, interpreted the Rig Veda as a historical record of the Aryan people who composed it. They used the text to propose theories about the Aryan homeland, their migration routes, and their conflicts with other groups. These interpretations often led to controversial theories like the Aryan Invasion Theory.

3. The Metaphysical or Philosophical Interpretation: This approach, most famously associated with Sri Aurobindo, a philosopher, yogi, and nationalist, interprets the hymns of the Rig Veda as symbolic and psychological representations of spiritual truths. For instance, the battles depicted are seen as the struggles within the human mind, and the deities represent various cosmic powers or aspects of consciousness.

4. The Linguistic Interpretation: This approach focuses on the linguistic aspects of the Rig Veda, such as grammar, etymology, and phonetics, to understand the evolution of the Sanskrit language and the meaning of the hymns.

5. The Socio-cultural Interpretation: Some scholars interpret the Rig Veda to understand the social, cultural, and economic life of the Vedic people. This includes aspects like the role of women, the caste system, the significance of the horse and cattle, and the use of soma, a ritual drink.

As the oldest extant text in any Indo-European language, the Rig Veda remains a critical resource for understanding early Indian history, religious thought, and linguistic development. However, its dense and poetic language often poses challenges to interpretation. It's essential to approach the text with a nuanced understanding of its historical and cultural context and to be aware of the limitations and potential biases inherent in any interpretation.

The jallikattu seal found at Mohenjodaro and the proto-shiva seal

The "Jallikattu seal" is a term applied to a seal discovered at Mohenjo-Daro, one of the most prominent sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. This seal depicts a figure in a position that seems to suggest he is controlling or taming a bull. The term "Jallikattu" is derived from a traditional bull-taming sport practiced in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The name has been ascribed to this seal due to the seeming similarity between the scene depicted on the seal and the sport of Jallikattu.

The depiction of the human figure and the bull on the seal has been a source of various interpretations and speculations. Some see it as an indication of the sport or a similar practice in the Indus Valley Civilization, suggesting potential cultural continuity or interaction with later Dravidian cultures where similar bull-taming practices are found. Others interpret the seal as a depiction of a myth or a ritual, which might indicate a more symbolic or religious significance to the scene.

The "Proto-Shiva" seal is another significant and intriguing artifact from the Indus Valley Civilization. Also known as the "Pashupati" seal, it was discovered in Mohenjo-Daro and dates back to around 2000–1900 BCE. The seal shows a horned figure sitting in what appears to be a yogic position and surrounded by animals.

Some people have interpreted the figure as an early representation of a deity who would later transform into the Hindu god Shiva in his Pashupati (Lord of Animals) form. This interpretation is based on several features: the seated, possibly meditative posture, which resembles the yogic position known as Mulabandhasana; the presence of animals, which aligns with Shiva's role as Pashupati; and the horned headgear, which could be seen as an early representation of Shiva's crescent moon or his matted locks.

However, it's important to note that these interpretations are largely speculative. The Indus script associated with such seals remains undeciphered, and therefore the intended meaning or context of the seal's imagery is unknown. Moreover, one must be cautious when drawing direct parallels between artifacts separated by thousands of years and significant geographical distances, as this might lead to an oversimplification of the complex cultural processes involved.

Archaeologists and historians continue to study the Indus Valley seals in the hope that they might yield more information about the enigmatic Indus Valley Civilization. Despite the challenges, these tiny artifacts provide fascinating glimpses into a civilization that was remarkably advanced for its time and played a crucial role in the cultural history of the Indian subcontinent.

The Aryan Invasion Theory

The Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) has been a significant part of this discussion. The AIT postulates that the Indo-European-speaking Aryans invaded India around 1500 BCE, which caused the IVC to collapse and signaled the start of the Vedic Age. This theory was based on linguistic similarities between Sanskrit and European languages and the assumed cultural differences between the Vedic and the Harappan cultures.

However, the AIT has faced substantial criticism and reevaluation in recent decades. Many archaeologists argue that there is no substantial evidence of violent conflict or sudden cultural change in the IVC around 1500 BCE, as the AIT would imply. Instead, they propose a gradual, internal development from the IVC to the Vedic culture, which might suggest a continuity that could include the preservation of certain religious practices.

The Role of Nationalism and Colonialism

Nationalistic and colonial narratives have had a significant influence on the interpretation of the IVC. During the British colonial period, the Aryan Invasion Theory was often used to legitimize colonial rule, suggesting that the Indian subcontinent had been repeatedly "invaded" by "superior" cultures. This narrative resonated with the colonial ideology of the civilizing mission.

In response to this, Indian nationalism, both during the anti-colonial struggle and in the post-independence period, often sought to emphasize the indigenous origins of Indian civilization and culture. Bal Gangadhar Tilak proposed the idea of an indigenous Aryan culture, and other academics later developed it, refuting the AIT by claiming that the Vedic civilization was the source of the IVC.

Supporters of the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), a Hindu nationalist organization, attend a religious congregation organized by the group in New Delhi on Dec. 9, 2018. Organizations like the VHP are on the upswing as Hindu nationalism grows in India.

(NASIR KACHROO/NurPhoto via Getty Images)

In contemporary Indian politics, the interpretation of the IVC often aligns with different nationalistic narratives. Some political parties, particularly those associated with Hindu nationalism, tend to highlight the continuity from the IVC to present-day Hindu culture, emphasizing the antiquity and indigenous origins of Hinduism.

On the other hand, Dravidian political movements in South India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, often emphasize the Dravidian hypothesis of the IVC to underline their distinct identity. According to this interpretation, the Indo-Aryans' arrival disrupted the IVC, which resulted in the relocation of Dravidian cultures to southern India.

the racial nativism of Hindutva ideology

Hindutva, or "Hinduness," is an ideology that seeks to define Indian culture in terms of Hindu values and promotes the idea of a Hindu nation. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar first articulated it in 1923. Hindutva is associated with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), among other organizations, and has been a significant force in Indian politics.

One aspect of Hindutva ideology is a form of racial or ethnic nativism, which posits that the Indian subcontinent is the ancestral homeland of Hindus. This is rooted in the notion of "Bharatvarsha" (the land of Bharata, an ancient king) as a sacred geography that is inherently Hindu.

The Hindutva ideology often emphasizes the Aryan indigenous theory, which argues that the Indo-European-speaking Aryans, traditionally believed to have migrated to India from Central Asia, were actually indigenous to India. This contrasts with the Aryan Invasion Theory, which suggests that the Aryans were foreign invaders. The indigenous theory supports the Hindutva narrative of India as the primordial homeland of Hindus, undermining the idea of Hinduism as a foreign or imported tradition.

Hindutva nativism is often associated with the ideal of a "Hindu Rashtra" (Hindu Nation), where Indian national identity is closely tied to Hindu religious and cultural practices. This has been critiqued for potentially marginalizing religious and cultural minorities in India, such as Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs, among others. Critics argue that this view neglects the diverse, pluralistic nature of Indian society.

It's important to note that the Hindutva view of history and ethnicity is not universally accepted and is a matter of ongoing debate in India. The interpretation of archaeological, linguistic, and historical evidence is complex and often contentious, reflecting the diverse and multifaceted nature of India's past.

Genetics and the Roots of Ancient Indian Civilizations

Genetics, specifically the field of population genetics, has increasingly become a significant source of information about human history. It can provide insights into ancient migrations, population interactions, and demographic changes that are often not accessible through archaeological or linguistic evidence alone.

In the context of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) and the debate about its relationship to the Dravidian and Indo-Aryan linguistic groups, genetic studies have begun to shed some light, although the findings are often complex and open to various interpretations.

A significant breakthrough in this area came with the study of ancient DNA from the Rakhigarhi site, one of the largest cities in the IVC. In a study published in 2019 in the journal "Cell," researchers analyzed genomic data from an individual who lived approximately 4,600 years ago. This individual, a woman, showed no genetic evidence of steppe ancestry, which is associated with Indo-European-speaking people. Instead, her genetic profile was similar to contemporary South Asian populations, particularly those in the Dravidian-speaking regions of India.

This finding supports the theory that the IVC was primarily Dravidian-speaking and that the Indo-European languages were introduced to the Indian subcontinent later, possibly through migrations or cultural influence from the steppe regions. However, it's important to note that this is based on the DNA of just one individual, and more genetic data from the IVC is needed to confirm these findings.

On the other hand, other genetic studies have shown that many South Asians have a mixture of both steppe and IVC-related ancestry, suggesting complex interactions and migrations over thousands of years.

While these genetic studies provide valuable insights, they also highlight the complexity of the peopling of the Indian subcontinent. Human history is a tapestry woven from countless individual threads, and while genetics can help trace some of these threads, it is just one piece of the puzzle. The interpretation of genetic data must be integrated with archaeological, linguistic, and historical evidence to build a comprehensive picture of our past. As such, the question of whether the IVC was Dravidian or Indo-Aryan is unlikely to be resolved through genetics alone.

The question of whether the Indus Valley civilization was Hindu or Dravidian is complex and multifaceted. It involves not just archaeological and linguistic evidence but also the interpretations of religious texts, the implications of colonialism, and the nationalistic narratives of modern India. While it is unlikely that a definitive answer will be found until the Indus script is deciphered, the debate continues to shed light on the rich and diverse history of the Indian subcontinent. It also serves as a poignant reminder of how our current context and interests shape how we perceive the past.

Indus Valley Civilization: A Glimpse into Its People, Governance, and Cultural Tapestry

The Indus Valley Civilization, flourishing around the areas of modern-day Pakistan and northwest India, has long intrigued historians and archaeologists with its advanced urban planning, sophisticated craftsmanship, and enigmatic script. In this article, we shed light on civilization's social fabric, governance, and cultural practices, offering a window into the life, attire, and societal organization of this ancient civilization.

The Fabric of Society: Attire and Appearance

The Harappan people exhibited a keen sense of fashion, distinguished by gender-specific attire and hairstyles that possibly denoted societal status or occupations. Men's clothing comprised dhoti-like garments, while women donned woven cotton or wool dresses, as inferred from the examination of various stone and terracotta figurines. These figurines not only reveal the fashion sensibilities of the Harappans but also hint at a society where personal adornment played a significant role in expressing identity and status.

Leisure and Cultural Practices

Leisure activities within the Harappan society, as depicted by terracotta figurines, included dancing, music, and games, indicating a community that valued joy and entertainment. Particularly noteworthy is the elevated social status of women, inferred from their elaborate hairstyles and participation in cultural activities. This aspect of Harappan life underscores a society where women held significant roles, both in the domestic and public spheres.

Religious Beliefs and Health

The worship of a mother goddess and a fertility cult, as evidenced by numerous sculptures and figurines, highlights the spiritual dimensions of the Harappan people, emphasizing fertility and the feminine divine. Furthermore, the analysis of Harappan health and diet through biological remains reveals a population that consumed a varied diet of grains, fruits, dairy, and fish, despite challenges such as malaria and biological heterogeneity.

The Enigmatic Pashupati Seal: The First Depiction Of Yoga?

Social Structure and Occupations

The diverse occupations and complex social structure of the Indus Valley Civilization reflect a highly organized society. From farmers to sculptors and priests, the array of professions and evidence of urban planning indicate a civilization with specialized roles and an intricate social hierarchy. This diversity challenges the notion of a homogeneously stratified society, suggesting instead a multifaceted community with rich cultural and occupational diversity.

Governance and Symbols of Power

The lack of military fortifications and records suggests the Indus Valley Civilization was predominantly peace-loving, with minimal emphasis on warfare. However, the existence of trading outposts and a common system of writing points towards a sophisticated level of administrative control and economic complexity. Symbols of power, such as the unicorn motif, indicate a ruling elite possibly comprising aristocrats or influential merchants, hinting at a decentralized but disciplined governance structure.

List Of Inventions And Discoveries Of The Indus Valley Civilisation

A Complex Society

The Indus Valley Civilization was marked by a complex social and political landscape, characterized by diverse occupations, rich cultural life, and a decentralized political structure. The evidence of social equality, leisure activities, and religious practices suggests a society that was advanced not only in terms of its urban planning and craftsmanship but also in its social organization and cultural expression.

The exploration of the Indus Valley Civilization's people, governance, and cultural practices offers invaluable insights into one of the world's oldest urban cultures. Through detailed analyses such as Merlin's, we continue to peel back the layers of mystery surrounding this enigmatic civilization, revealing a society that was remarkably sophisticated in its organization, cultural expression, and worldview. As we delve deeper into the Harappan way of life, we not only uncover the past but also gain perspectives that enrich our understanding of human history and the diverse paths civilizations can take.

Greco-Buddhist Art: A Fusion of Eastern and Hellenistic Traditions

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Greco-Buddhist art stands as a remarkable testament to the intermingling of classical Greek culture with Buddhism, marking a significant chapter in the annals of art history. This unique artistic tradition, known as Greco-Buddhism, emerged from a fascinating blend of Eastern and Western cultural elements, flourishing over a span of nearly a millennium. From the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC to the Islamic conquests of the 7th century AD, Greco-Buddhist art developed across Central Asia, showcasing the depth and breadth of cultural syncretism.

The inception of Greco-Buddhist art can be traced back to the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom, established in what is now Afghanistan between 250 BC and 130 BC. The establishment of the Indo-Greek kingdom from 180 BC to 10 BC further accelerated the spread of Hellenistic culture into the Indian subcontinent during this time period. It was in the Gandhara region of today's northern Pakistan that the melding of Greek and Buddhist cultures reached its zenith, under the auspices of the Indo-Greeks and later the Kushans. Gandhara became the cradle of Greco-Buddhist art, from which its influence radiated into India, impacting the art of Mathura and subsequently the Hindu art of the Gupta empire. This latter influence extended throughout Southeast Asia, while Greco-Buddhist art also made its way northward, leaving its mark on the Tarim Basin and ultimately influencing the arts of China, Korea, and Japan.

Characterized by the strong idealistic realism and sensuous depiction inherent to Hellenistic art, Greco-Buddhist art is renowned for introducing the first human representations of the Buddha. This pivotal development not only helped define the artistic and sculptural canon of Buddhist art across Asia but also served as a bridge between the aesthetic ideals of the East and the West. The portrayal of the Buddha in human form, imbued with the grace and precision of Greek sculpture, lent a new dimension to Buddhist iconography, enriching its symbolic and emotional depth.

The synthesis of Greek and Buddhist elements in art manifested in various forms, including sculpture, architecture, and relief art. The sculptures from this period are particularly notable for their elaborate drapery, reminiscent of Greek god statues, combined with the serene, contemplative facial expressions characteristic of Buddhist art. This blend of Greek artistic techniques with Buddhist iconography and themes resulted in a distinctly new style that had a lasting impact on the development of Buddhist art throughout Asia.

Greco-Buddhist art serves as a powerful example of cultural syncretism, illustrating how artistic expressions can transcend geographical and cultural boundaries to create new, hybrid forms. This artistic tradition not only highlights the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations but also underscores the role of art as a universal language capable of bridging diverse cultures. As such, Greco-Buddhist art remains a fascinating area of study for historians, archaeologists, and art enthusiasts alike, offering insights into the dynamic exchanges between the civilizations of the ancient world.

In conclusion, Greco-Buddhist art represents a significant cultural and artistic phenomenon, embodying the fusion of Eastern and Western traditions. Its legacy continues to influence and inspire the artistic landscape of Asia, serving as a testament to the enduring power of cultural exchange and the universal language of art.

An Indian Game of Thrones: How One Prince Saved the Chola Empire from Destruction

In the annals of history, tales of valor, cunning, and dynastic intrigue have always held a special place. While "Game of Thrones" may be a popular television series set in the fictional land of Westeros, there exists a real-life saga of power struggles, treachery, and a young prince's determination to save his empire. This is the story of how one prince, Rajendra Chola II, rose to the occasion and rescued the Chola Empire from the brink of destruction in ancient India.

The Chola Empire, renowned for its maritime prowess and grandeur, flourished in South India during the 10th century. However, by the early 13th century, the Chola Dynasty was in dire straits, facing threats from multiple fronts. Rival dynasties sought to seize Chola territories, and internal strife further weakened the once-mighty empire.

In the midst of this turmoil, Rajendra Chola II ascended to the Chola throne at the tender age of 16. It was a time when the Chola Empire teetered on the precipice of collapse, and the young prince faced the Herculean task of restoring his dynasty's former glory.

One of the most pressing challenges Rajendra Chola II faced was the rebellion led by the Pandya dynasty. The Pandya uprising threatened to dismantle the Chola Empire piece by piece. Yet, the young prince proved his mettle by quelling the rebellion and reasserting Chola dominance in the southern regions.

Recognizing the need for allies, Rajendra Chola II entered into strategic partnerships with neighboring powers. His diplomacy and military acumen secured the support of the Hoysala Empire and the Kakatiya Dynasty, further strengthening the Chola position against external threats.

The Chola Empire had a long history of maritime dominance, and Rajendra Chola II understood the importance of maintaining a formidable navy. Under his leadership, the Chola navy was revitalized, safeguarding the empire's coastal territories and ensuring the security of vital trade routes.

While military prowess played a crucial role in the survival of the Chola Empire, Rajendra Chola II was not merely a warrior. He was also a patron of the arts and culture. His reign witnessed a revival of Chola art and architecture, contributing to the enduring legacy of the dynasty.

Rajendra Chola II's reign marked a remarkable turnaround for the Chola Empire. Through a combination of military victories, strategic alliances, and a commitment to culture, he not only saved his dynasty from destruction but also paved the way for a period of Chola resurgence.

Conclusion

The story of Rajendra Chola II is a testament to the resilience of a young prince faced with overwhelming challenges. His ability to navigate the intricate web of politics, defeat formidable adversaries, and foster a cultural renaissance underscores his significance in Indian history. Rajendra Chola II's legacy serves as a reminder of the indomitable spirit that can resurrect empires from the brink of oblivion, making his reign an Indian "Game of Thrones" in its own right.

The Enigmatic Pashupati Seal: The First depiction of Yoga?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Unraveling the Mystery Behind the Pashupati Seal: A Glimpse into Ancient Yoga and Indus Valley Religion

The Pashupati Seal, excavated from the ancient ruins of Mohenjo-daro, remains one of the most enigmatic and intriguing artifacts of the Indus Valley Civilization. Discovered during the Archaeological Survey of India's 1928–29 exploration, this steatite seal, dating back to the Intermediate I Period (circa 2350–2000 BCE), offers a rare glimpse into the religious and cultural milieu of one of the world's earliest urban societies.

At the heart of the Pashupati Seal is a depiction that has sparked considerable debate among historians and archaeologists: a seated, possibly tricephalic figure, surrounded by animals. This figure, adorned with a horned headdress, has led to various interpretations, one of the most significant being its potential representation as an early form of the Hindu deity Shiva, known as "Pashupati," or Lord of Animals.

The depiction of the figure, potentially ithyphallic—a characteristic attributed to fertility or cosmic potency—was supported by the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) specialist Jonathan Mark Kenoyer in 2003. However, this interpretation has not been universally accepted, with some scholars questioning the hyperbolic nature of the figure.

What makes the Pashupati Seal particularly fascinating is its complexity and the prominence of a human figure, which is atypical in the context of the thousands of seals unearthed from the Indus Valley, where animals usually dominate the imagery. This uniqueness has fueled the theory that the seal may represent one of the earliest known depictions of Yoga, pointing to a possible ancient origin of this spiritual and ascetic discipline.

DescriptionThe Pashupati Seal is a steatite seal that was discovered at the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization. The seal depicts a seated figure that is possibly tricephalic. It was once thought to be ithyphallic, an interpretation that is now mostly discarded. Indiashastra

However, contemporary scholars lean towards viewing the Pashupati Seal through a broader lens. Rather than seeing it as a direct precursor to later Hindu deities or yogic practices, it is increasingly considered part of a larger tradition of "Lord of the Beasts" or "Master of Animals" motifs, prevalent in Eurasian Neolithic mythology and ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean art. This interpretation aligns the figure with a wider array of horned deities prevalent in various ancient cultures.

Important from a religious point of view are also the representations of fish, both on seals and on the ceramics of the specific era. The Sumerian god of waters, Enki, had the fish as his sacred symbol, while in Indian mythology, Varunas is the god of all water creatures. The connection between alligator fish and the deity Shiva, as known in this particular seal, also exists in later Hinduism.

This perspective broadens our understanding of the Indus Valley Civilization's religious beliefs, suggesting that they might have shared cultural and mythological elements with contemporary civilizations. It underscores the interconnectedness of ancient societies and the diffusion of religious and symbolic motifs across regions.

In conclusion, while the Pashupati Seal continues to be a subject of academic debate and intrigue, its value in providing insights into the religious life and artistic expression of the Indus Valley Civilization is indisputable. Whether it represents an early form of Shiva, a precursor to yogic practices, or a more universal archetype of a horned deity, it stands as a testament to the complexity and sophistication of one of humanity's earliest urban cultures. The seal not only invites us to delve deeper into the enigmatic world of the Indus Valley but also to appreciate the rich tapestry of ancient mythologies and religious practices that have shaped human civilization across millennia.

Aryan - A Term Lost in Translation: From Sanskrit to Modern Misconceptions

The Historical Complexity of the Term "Aryan"

In today's world, the term "Aryan" is often synonymous with notions of racial superiority and white supremacy, primarily due to its unfortunate association with Nazi ideology. This misunderstanding has led to a myriad of baseless concepts related to an alleged Aryan race, which have been hijacked and misused by racist ideologies. However, the true origins and historical context of the term "Aryan" reveal a far more complex and nuanced story.

The Pre-Nazi Origins of "Aryan"

To understand the term "Aryan" in its true historical context, we must look back to its origins, long before it became entangled with Nazi propaganda. The word "Aryan" initially referred to an ancient language whose speakers are believed to have influenced languages across the Indian subcontinent. It wasn't until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that it was erroneously equated with Germanic or Nordic peoples.

Who are the real Aryans?

Contrary to the misconceptions propagated by Nazi ideology, the earliest known Aryans dwelled in prehistoric Iran. These people migrated to northern India around 1,500 B.C. The term "Aryan" itself originates from the Sanskrit word "ārya," which also has a cognate in the Persian language, "ērān," giving rise to the modern-day name "Iran."

The Indus Valley Civilization

Before the arrival of the Aryans, the Indus Valley civilization had already reached a remarkable level of development. By 5500 BC, it had witnessed the emergence of religions, followed by the establishment of farming communities around 4000 BC and urban living around 2500 BC. The civilization reached its peak around 2000 B.C.

Arrival of the Aryans?

The Hindu Kush Mountains acted as a gateway for nomadic cattle herders from Central Asia, who were the Aryans, to settle in the fertile Indus Valley around 1500 BC. It's important to note that the Aryans were not unstoppable invaders but rather a group that gradually migrated to the region. Evidence suggests that the decline of the Indus Valley civilization was due to various factors, including environmental changes and social factors, rather than an Aryan invasion.

Diorama of everyday life in Indus Valley Civilization at the National Science Centre in Delhi, India. (Biswarup Ganguly / CC BY 3.0)

The Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

Archaeological findings indicate that the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization began around 1800 BC, possibly due to changes in river patterns, such as the drying up of the Saraswati River or catastrophic flooding. Natural disasters disrupted the agricultural practices that sustained civilization, leading to economic and societal collapse. The Aryans arrived in the region during this period, and their language and practices gradually integrated into the existing society.

the Kingdom of Aryan

The historical records related to the Kingdom of Aryan are scarce and often vague. Ancient sources make passing references to the Aryans, but their accuracy remains uncertain. For example, the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that the people of Media were once called Aryans, but scholars debate the credibility of this account.

Aryan in Ancient Religions

In Zoroastrianism, the term "Airyana Vaejah" refers to the mythical homeland of the Iranian people but does not carry racial or hierarchical connotations. Persian kings like Darius the Great were also described as Aryans, likely indicating their Central Asian origins. In this context, Aryan denoted adherence to one's dharma, a concept related to proper behavior rather than racial superiority.

German anthropologist, Bruno Beger, conducting anthropometric studies as part of his work with the Nazis in their “scientific” studies to prove the superiority of the “Aryan” German race, as opposed to that of the “racially inferior” Jewish race. (Krause, Ernst / CC-BY-SA 3.0)

Distorted by Nazi Ideology

The term "Aryan" went through a transformation from describing an Indo-Iranian language to being associated with Indo-European peoples. This transition gave rise to the false idea that these ancient European peoples originated from the north and conquered Eurasia. While modern scholarship has debunked this theory, the concept of the Aryan race was distorted and misused for political purposes, particularly by the Nazis.

The history of the term "Aryan" is a tale of complexity and misunderstanding. Its true origins lie in an ancient language and migration to the Indian subcontinent, far removed from the racial hierarchies perpetuated by Nazi ideology. By unraveling the historical complexities surrounding "Aryan," we can promote a more inclusive and equitable society that values diversity and rejects racist ideologies, learning from the mistakes of the past.

Vimanas: The Mystical Flying Machines of Ancient Indian Lore

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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In the annals of ancient civilizations, many have tales of mysterious flying objects and advanced technologies far beyond their time. For ancient India, these stories are intricately woven into the fabric of its rich mythological tapestry, particularly in the form of "vimanas." Often depicted as flying chariots or celestial aircraft, vimanas have ignited imaginations and spurred debates about ancient technological advancements for centuries.

The Etymology and Descriptions

The Sanskrit term "vimana" can be loosely translated as "having been measured out" or "traversing." In early Vedic literature, the term predominantly referred to a temple's central structure or the palace of a deity. However, over time, its usage expanded to describe a more intriguing concept: aerial vehicles that traversed the sky and even space.

In ancient Indian texts, vimanas are depicted in various forms, ranging from bird-like structures to palatial flying chariots adorned with wings. Some accounts even describe them as vast cities floating in the sky, complete with gardens and courtyards.

Literary Mentions

Several ancient Indian scriptures, epics, and other texts reference vimanas:

Rigveda: One of the oldest ancient Indian scriptures, the Rigveda, mentions mechanical birds and flying chariots.

Ramayana: This epic chronicles the hero Rama's adventures and references vimanas, most notably the "Pushpaka Vimana," a magnificent flying chariot that could change its form.

Mahabharata: Another seminal epic, the Mahabharata, contains multiple references to aerial battles and sophisticated vimanas.

Vaimnika Shstra: Often cited by enthusiasts and researchers, this early 20th-century Sanskrit text provides detailed schematics and descriptions of vimanas. While it claims to be based on older texts, its authenticity and origins are topics of debate among scholars.

Technological Marvels or Mythological Symbols?

Vimanas, given their detailed descriptions and recurring presence in ancient texts, have sparked intense debates among historians, researchers, and enthusiasts. Three primary interpretations prevail:

1. Symbolic Representations: Some scholars argue that vimanas are purely symbolic, representing spiritual mastery, enlightenment, or the prowess of deities and celestial beings.

2. Historical Records: A contrasting view suggests that these accounts might be distorted records of advanced technological innovations lost over time or interactions with advanced civilizations.

3. Extraterrestrial Contact: Riding the wave of ancient astronaut theories, some propose that vimanas are evidence of ancient India's contact with extraterrestrial beings.

Influence on Popular Culture

The concept of vimanas has not remained confined to ancient texts. They have permeated modern pop culture, inspiring books, films, and TV shows. The allure of advanced ancient civilizations with flying machines fits seamlessly into science fiction and fantasy narratives.

Vimanas, whether viewed as mythological wonders or potential evidence of advanced ancient technologies, undeniably captivate the imagination. As with many ancient tales, they remind us of humanity's enduring fascination with flight, the skies, and the boundless possibilities of the universe. They stand as a testament to ancient India's rich storytelling tradition, where the lines between mythology, spirituality, and history often beautifully blur.

The Symbolism and Metaphors of the Vedas: Hidden Meanings and Profound Significance

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Some of the oldest and holiest texts in Hinduism can be found in a collection of Sanskrit texts known as the Vedas. Scholars and spiritual seekers have studied these texts for centuries, but we still don't know everything there is to know about them. 

Hymns, prayers, and rituals made up the Vedas, and they were passed down orally for centuries before being written down in Sanskrit. The Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda are the four primary Vedas. Even though each Veda is organized and contains different information, they are all revered as holy scripture by Hindus.

The Vedas' origins are a mystery. Scholars generally agree that the Vedas were written between 1500 BCE and 500 CE, but the exact date is unclear. Sages and seers in Hinduism were said to have received the Vedas as a divine revelation, and this has led to the belief that the Vedas are eternal. The Vedas have another name, ruti, which means "that which is heard," because they were originally transmitted through a system of recitation and memorization.

Yet another enigma is the Vedic language. Sanskrit, the language in which the Vedas were originally composed, is no longer spoken. Sanskrit is revered for its lyrical beauty and linguistic precision, but its complexity and high structure make it difficult to learn. The Vedas were composed in a form of Sanskrit called Vedic Sanskrit, which is distinct from the classical Sanskrit used in later Hindu texts. Scholars have been fascinated by the Vedas and their study of their language and structure for centuries.

Yet another unsolved puzzle is what exactly is in the Vedas. The Vedas are a treasure trove of knowledge about ancient Hinduism's cosmology, metaphysics, and even the mythology of the Hindu pantheon and the rituals and ceremonies performed in their honor. Hymns and prayers found in the Vedas are still regularly recited in Hindu homes and worship centers today. Scholars often disagree on how to make sense of certain Vedic passages and the extent to which they should be taken literally.

The Vedas' mysterious allure stems in no small part from the allegory and metaphor that permeate their texts. The Vedas are full of allegory and metaphor, which are used to explain abstract ideas in philosophy and religion. The Rigveda, for instance, has hymns that portray the cosmos as a sacrifice, with the gods and goddesses performing the ritual and the elements of space and time serving as the offering. The Samaveda details how to play the music used in Vedic rituals, while the Yajurveda details how to conduct sacrifices.

Due to their esoteric nature, the Vedas are also shrouded in mystery. It was the Brahmin caste's responsibility to perform the Vedic rituals and ceremonies, so only members of the Brahmin caste were allowed to read and understand the Vedas. It was only through a system of oral transmission from teacher to student that the Vedas could be preserved and spread from generation to generation, as they were regarded as sacred texts containing sacred knowledge.

The Vedas, for all their obscurity and difficulty, remain a cornerstone of Hinduism. When it comes to Indian religion and culture, the Vedas serve as the cornerstone. Buddhism and Jainism are just two examples of religions and philosophies that owe something to the Vedas. In conclusion, the Vedas' enigmas never cease to enthral and perplex academics and spiritual explorers. Many mysteries surround the Vedas, including their origin and language, as well as their symbolism and esoteric nature. The Vedas have been an integral part of human spirituality and culture for thousands of years, but their depth and mystery may be their most enduring qualities. And what other mysteries and insights might the Vedas still hold? Time, along with continued research and thought, may be the only thing that can shed light on the situation.

The Unwavering Legacy of the Iron Pillar: India's Timeless Monument

BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

The Iron Pillar of Delhi is among India's most famous historical relics, and for good reason. This massive iron column has stood tall in the city center for over 1,600 years, and it still looks as good as new. The Iron Pillar has been the subject of countless investigations, but its true nature and purpose remain a mystery, casting doubt on our knowledge of ancient metalworking and engineering and giving rise to much speculation.

The Iron Pillar's materials and methods of construction remain a mystery. The wrought iron used to construct the pillar is of the highest quality, making it highly resistant to rust and corrosion. There is a great deal of mystery surrounding the pillar's construction due to the fact that it has withstood the test of time in essentially pristine condition despite the severe climate and air pollution of Delhi.

The Iron Pillar's history and age remain mysteries. The pillar was probably built sometime around the fourth century A.D., but the specific date and the reasons for its construction are unknown. It has been speculated that the Gupta Empire commissioned the pillar, while others argue that it was built by the Tomara dynasty. This mystery is made more complicated by the fact that the pillar is covered in illegible Sanskrit inscriptions.

Beyond these unexplained scientific conundrums, the Iron Pillar is also linked to a deep cultural history and religious practice. Both the Hindu and Muslim communities have held the pillar in high regard over the years, and it has become the focus of many myths and legends. It is believed that the Hindu gods invested the pillar with their magical powers, giving it the ability to grant wishes and ward off evil spirits. The presence of these myths and legends has prompted conjecture regarding the religious practices and beliefs of ancient India.

The Iron Pillar is surrounded by a plethora of myths and legends, but one thing is certain: this ancient artifact never ceases to amaze us with its mystery and beauty. The Iron Pillar of Delhi is a symbol of India's cultural and spiritual heritage as well as a testament to the ingenuity and resilience of the human spirit, whether viewed through the lens of engineering and metallurgy or as a symbol of India's rich cultural and spiritual heritage.

The mystery of the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization has now been solved

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THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Although it is considered one of the world's most ancient civilizations and the subject of extensive research, much about this ancient society remains unknown.

The growing Indus Valley Civilisation presided over the region that is now Pakistan and India four thousand years ago. From 2600 BC to 1500 BC, the Indus Valley Civilisation flourished in the Indian subcontinent near the Indus River. It probably had a profound impact on Hindu culture, according to archeological evidence. This civilization was lost to history until it was rediscovered in 1920. Taking into account the evidence of the appearance of cities, agriculture, architecture, and writing, it is ranked alongside its contemporaries, the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, as one of the three most ancient civilizations on Earth.Although it is considered one of the oldest civilizations in the world and the subject of extensive research, much about this ancient society remains unknown.

Himalayan cave stalagmite offers most detailed explanation yet of what led to ancient Indus civilization's decline, new study says.

The "social and political structures" of the Indus civilization, for example, are unknown, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Archaeologists and historians know almost nothing about the language, the weight system, or the artifacts of the time. Yet one mystery remains the greatest of all: how, when, and why did the Indus Valley Civilization disappear?

Experts generally agree that a drought hit the Indus Valley about 4,200 years ago, but the "exact timing and magnitude" of that drought remain unknown, researchers said in a study published April 4 in the journal Communications Earth & Environment.

The Dharamjali cave in the Himalayas held the solutions to these vexing issues. Researchers discovered a stalagmite with a revealing mix of traits close to the far end of the tiny cave. Although the cave creation occurred in a weather-sensitive environment, it was protected enough to have formed during this prehistoric epoch. According to the study, the researchers were able to reconstruct historical rainfall patterns that started 4,200 years ago based on the stratified strata of minerals in the stalagmite.

Their findings provided a more thorough and slightly different picture of ancient life than what was previously known. The researchers discovered "three big drought periods" between 4,200 and 3,900 years ago, with each one "lasting 25-90 years," as opposed to "a single severe drought spanning roughly 100-200 years." In a press statement on April 24, research co-author Cameron Petrie of the University of Cambridge noted, "We find convincing evidence that this time was not a short-term crisis but a continuous transformation of the natural conditions under which Indus people lived." According to the study, rainfall dropped during these dry spells in both the summer and the winter. The drought had a negative impact on Indian towns' access to water as well as predictions of rainfall and river flooding for crucial crops.

"The archaeological findings show that over a period of 200 years, the ancient inhabitants took various measures to adapt and remain resilient in the face of this new environment," study lead author Alena Gise said in the release. The great megacities of the Indus, such as Harappa, began to decline as people moved to "smaller and more flexible agricultural settlements," as the researchers point out in the study. "Craftsmanship and innovation in Indian urban centers... and long-distance exchange and trade" also declined. About 300 years after the final dry period, about 3,600 years ago, the Indus Valley Civilization disappeared completely, a study suggests.

In order to better comprehend this final stage of decline, the researchers underlined the need of examining various cave formations, according to the report. The Indian Himalayan area of Uttaranchal is home to Dharamjali Cave, which is around 290 miles northeast of New Delhi and close to the borders with Nepal and China.

Ancient India's Mythic Concepts: Harappans, Aryans, and Proto-Shiva Seals

Ancient India has a rich and diverse cultural tapestry that is home to enigmatic civilizations and enduring mythological ideas. The Harappan or Indus Valley civilization, for instance, stands as one of the oldest and most extensive urban cultures of the ancient world. The sophistication of their cities, advanced amenities, and cultural diversity are indicative of a highly evolved society.

Recent discoveries have added intriguing layers to our understanding of this ancient civilization. Notably, the presence of pipal trees on Harappan seals has drawn attention to the possible existence of a meditating proto-Shiva. This proposes the belief that the roots of yogic meditation and the iconic figure of Shiva can be traced back to the ancient Harappans, shedding light on the profound spiritual practices of that era.

Furthermore, the appearance of Shiva on Harappan seals suggests a continuity of mythic concepts and cultural symbols across millennia. Seals possibly depicting Shiva and yogic meditation not only connect ancient and modern spiritual practices but also prompt a reevaluation of the origins of such iconic symbols, challenging established narratives.

The term 'Aryan' has also been scrutinized for its problematic implications and factual incoherence in modern usage. It has become essential to reject racist narratives and embrace scholarly and scientific approaches that steer away from outdated and harmful ideologies to foster a more inclusive and accurate understanding of ancient history.

Moreover, the assimilation of nomadic peoples with indigenous cultures in India and Central Asia demonstrates the intricate interplay of various ethnic and cultural groups, contributing to the complex fabric of ancient Indian society.

The cultural diversity within the Indus civilization is particularly captivating, evident in their burial customs and language. This highlights the complexities of society and the interactions between different groups of people, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of ancient social structures.

It is pertinent to note that the legacy of the Harappan civilization has not vanished into the mists of time but rather transitioned, leaving a genetic influence that persists in modern-day India. This enduring legacy serves as a testament to the depth of their impact on the cultural landscape of the region.

The migration of the Indo-Aryans and Indo-Iranians in different directions, along with the amalgamation of cultures from the Hindu Kush and India, led to the coalescence of the Vedas into a canonical form around 1000 BCE. This process of cultural fusion and evolution is reflected in the Rigveda, which embodies a blend of cultural influences from various regions.

However, scholarly research into ancient cultures, particularly concerning the Indo-European migration theory, is riddled with challenges, emphasizing the need for a nuanced and cautious approach to interpreting historical narratives, avoiding oversimplifications, and embracing the complexities inherent in the study of ancient civilizations.

In conclusion, the ancient cultures of India possess a profound and enduring richness that continues to influence the modern world. The revelations surrounding the Harappans, the scrutinization of Aryan narratives, and the confluence of diverse cultures exemplify the depth of India's historical and mythic legacy, urging us to delve deeper into the enigmatic tapestry of its past to unravel the intricacies of its cultural and spiritual heritage.

List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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This list of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation lists the technological and civilisational achievements of the Indus Valley Civilisation, an ancient civilisation which flourished in the Bronze Age around the general region of the Indus River and Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is today Pakistan, and parts of India.

The extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation

Inventions

Button, ornamental: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilisation for ornamental purposes by 2000 BC. Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread. Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."

Shipyard: The world's oldest shipyard has been found in Lothal. It is situated 80 km south of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.

Cockfighting: Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilisation in what today is Pakistan by 2000 BC and one of the uses of the fighting cock. The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)—on the origins of cockfighting—holds: "The game fowl is probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The sport was popular in ancient times in the Indian subcontinent, China, the Persian Empire, and other Eastern countries and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524–460 BC). The sport spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. For a long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthusiastically that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century CE) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the pit."

An ancient well, and the city drainage canals, in Lothal, Gujarat, India

Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilisation's archaeological site at Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan and Dholavira, India. The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BC, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure. The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture. Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism. Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE. Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.

Bow Drill: Bow drills were used in Mehrgarh between the 4th and 5th millennium BC. This bow drill—used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and carnelian—was made of green jasper. Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley Civilisation and Iran one millennium later.

Public Baths: The earliest public baths are found in the ruins in of the Indus Valley Civilisation. According to John Keay, the "Great Bath" of Mohenjo Daro in present-day Pakistan was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.

Grid Plan: Rehman Dheri contains the earliest evidence of a grid-planned city in south Asia dated c. 3300 BC. By 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and other major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north–south and east–west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes.

Flush Toilet: Mohenjo-Daro circa 2800 BC is cited as having some of the most advanced, with toilets built into outer walls of homes. These toilets were Western-style, albeit a primitive form, with vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains.

Drainage System: The Indus Valley Civilisation had advanced sewerage and drainage systems. All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered gravity sewers, which lined the major streets.

Distillation: A terracota distillation apparatus in the Indus Valley in West Pakistan dates from around 3000 BC.

Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement in Pakistan on the westernmost outreaches of the civilisation

Cotton industry: The Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India.

Public Litter bins: Archaeologists have found several brick containers that were strategically located along the street junctions of Mohenjo-Daro specifically for garbage disposal.

Dentistry: The evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC. An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.

Touchstone: Found in excavations from Banawali, Haryana.

Signboard: One of the most significant discoveries at Dholavira was made in one of the side rooms of the northern gateway of the city, and is generally known as the Dholavira Signboard. The Harappans had arranged and set pieces of the mineral gypsum to form ten large symbols or letters on a big wooden board. At some point, the board fell flat on its face. The wood decayed, but the arrangement of the letters survived. The letters of the signboard are comparable to large bricks that were used in nearby walls. Each sign is about 37 cm (15 in) high and the board on which the letters were inscribed was about 3 m (9.8 ft) long. The inscription is one of the longest in the Indus script, with one symbol appearing four times, and this and its large size and public nature make it a key piece of evidence cited by scholars arguing that the Indus script represents full literacy. A four-sign inscription with large letters on a sand stone is also found at this site, considered the first of such inscriptions on sand stone at any of the Harappan sites.

One of the water reservoirs, with steps, at Dholavira

Hydraulic Engineering: "The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation, harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic engineering, given the state of technology in the third millennium BC" says R.S.Bist, Joint Director General (Rtd.), Archaeological Survey of India. One of the unique features of Dholavira is the sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs, the earliest found anywhere in the world, built completely of stone. The city had massive reservoirs, three of which are exposed. They were used for storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water diverted from two nearby rivulets. This clearly came in response to the desert climate and conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall. A seasonal stream which runs in a north–south direction near the site was dammed at several points to collect water.

Dams: In Neolithic Mehrgarh pre-Harappan phase (7000-3200 BC) people had developed a water storage system called Bund to trap rain and torrential waters in the semi-arid region of Kach in-between the Indus river and Balochistan mountains where the seasonal Bolan river flows. Stone walls were built along the slope of torrential river beds to serve as reservoir dams, restrict flow of water and for diverting water into canals for irrigation.

Stadium: the world's earliest stadium with terraced stands was constructed at Dholavira and Juni Kuran. Two stadiums have been identified at the ancient site, one is considered a ceremonial ground, another, a small stadium. At Juni Kuran, two separate stadiums for commoners and the elite have been discovered.

Bronze sculpture: Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro belonging to the Harappan civilisation dating back to 2500 BC is said to be the first bronze statue.

Lost wax casting: a detailed, full-field photoluminescence study of a 6,000 year old copper "wheel" amulet from Mehrgarh in Balochistan has opened the door to many new facts about this period of history. This study by Ipanema, the European center for the study of ancient materials, believes that this is the oldest known example of the "lost wax" casting technique, one of the most important innovations in the history of metallurgy.

Shampoo: Pre-Harappan level of Banawali (2750-2500 BC), Haryana have revealed traces of a mixture of shikakai with soap nuts and Amla (Indian Gooseberry) of what would constitute herbal shampoo, exhibiting ancient roots of South Asian hygiene.

Mordant (Dye Fixing): Mordants for fixing dyes were used since the Indus Valley Civilisation, it exhibited Indian mastery over clothes dyeing which was unrivalled until the invention of western chemical dyes.

Stoneware: Earliest stonewares, predecessors of porcelain have been recorded at the Indus Valley Civilisation sites of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, they were used for making stoneware bangles.

Seven Stones: An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas and has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilisation.

English Bond: This bond has alternating stretching and heading courses, with the headers centred over the midpoint of the stretchers, and perpends in each alternate course aligned. Harappan architecture in South Asia was the first use, anywhere in the world, of so-called English bond in building with bricks.

Saw, modern: True saws with modern teeth were a Harappan invention.

Needle's eye: The eye of the needle was another Harappan contribution.

Etched Carnelian beads: are a type of ancient decorative beads made from carnelian with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by the Harappans during the 3rd millennium BC and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west.

Finished Ivory Goods: Finished Ivory products like kohl sticks, pins, awls, hooks, toggles, combs, gamesmen, dice, inlay and other personal ornaments are considered to have its origin form Harappan sites.

Discoveries

Gemstones and Lapis Lazuli: Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana, which is the oldest site of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Sesame oil: Sesame seeds were one of the first crops processed for oil as well as one of the earliest condiments. Sesame was cultivated during the Indus Valley Civilisation and was the main oil crop. It was probably exported to Mesopotamia around 2500 BC.

Pashmina: Samples of wool fibres discovered from corroded copper artifacts from Harappa dating back to the Indus Valley Civilisation are extremely fine and resemble Pashmina and Shatoosh.

Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation

The ancient Indus Valley Civilization in South Asia, including current day's Pakistan and north India, was prominent in infrastructure, hydraulic engineering, and had many water supply and sanitation devices that are the first known examples of their kind.

Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro

Most houses of Indus Valley were made from mud, dried mud bricks, or clay bricks. The urban areas of the Indus Valley civilization included public and private baths. Sewage was disposed of through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and a sophisticated water management system with numerous reservoirs was established. In the drainage systems, drains from houses were connected to wider public drains. Many of the buildings at Mohenjo-Daro had two or more stories. Water from bathrooms on the roofs and upper stories was carried through enclosed terracotta pipes or open chutes that emptied onto the street drains.

A water well in Lothal

The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi. This urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, wastewater was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

Devices such as shadoofs and sakias were used to lift water to ground level. Ruins like Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan and Dholavira in Gujarat in India had settlements with some of the ancient world's most sophisticated sewage systems. They included drainage channels, rainwater harvesting, and street ducts.

Water reservoir, with steps, at Dholavira, Gujarat, India

Stepwells have mainly been used in the Indian subcontinent.

Several courtyard houses had both a washing platform and a dedicated toilet/waste disposal hole. The toilet holes would be flushed by emptying a jar of water, drawn from the house's central well, through a clay brick pipe, and into a shared brick drain, that would feed into an adjacent soak pit (cesspit). The soak pits would be periodically emptied of their solid matter, possibly to be used as fertilizer. Most houses also had private wells. City walls functioned as a barrier against floods.

Mohenjo-daro

The Great Bath

Mohenjo-daro, located in Sindh, Pakistan, is one of the best excavated and studied settlements from this civilization. The Great Bath might be the first of its kind in the pre-historic period. This ancient town had more than 700 wells, and most houses in Mohenjo-Daro had at least one private well.

Dholavira

Dholavira, located in Gujarat, India (c. 3000-1500 BC),[3] had a series of water storage tanks and step wells, and its water management system has been called "unique". Dholavira had at least five baths and the size of one is comparable with the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro.

Lothal

The bathroom-toilet structure of a house in Lothal

Lothal, Gujarat (c. 2350–1900 BC), excavation of the site has identified two wells in the city, one in the acropolis and the other by the dock. In addition, more than a dozen houses of the acropolis possessed their own internal bathing platform which drained into a covered communal sewer constructed of brickwork held together with a gypsum-based mortar and which emptied into a cesspit outside the town's wall. A relatively large house in the acropolis had a bathing platform with an attached latrine, that fed into a separate open drain, and discharged into the town's dock. The Lower town hosts a number of soak pots, large sunken jars with a hole in the bottom, to permit liquids to drain, which were regularly emptied and cleaned.

Pakistan's Monsoon Rains Threaten 4,500-Year-Old UNESCO World Heritage Site

Mystery still surrounds the disappearance of the civilisation in this 4,500 year old city, which coincided with those of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia

In this photograph taken on Feb. 9, 2017, visitors walk through the UNESCO World Heritage archeological site of Mohenjo Daro. Once the centre of a powerful civilization, Mohenjo Daro was one of the world's earliest cities — a Bronze Age metropolis boasting flush toilets, as well as a water and waste system to rival modern standards. (Asif Hassan/AFP/Getty Images

Pakistan’s catastrophic floods are threatening one of the world’s oldest known cities after the large-scale devastation already led to the death of over 1,300 people and destroyed billions of dollar worth of property.

The authorities in the southern Sindh province have said the flooding poses an imminent risk to the ruins of Mohenjo Daro — a 4,500-year-old city of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation and a UNESCO world heritage site.

The flooding has not directly hit Mohenjo Daro, but the record-breaking rains have inflicted damage on the ruins of the ancient city, said Ahsan Abbasi, the site’s curator.

“Several big walls, which were built nearly 5,000 years ago, have collapsed because of the monsoon rains,” Abbasi told The Associated Press on Tuesday.

This aerial photograph taken on Aug. 31 shows the flooded Indus River along the Sukkur Barrage after heavy rains in flood-hit Sukkur, Sindh province. (AFP/Getty Images)

He said dozens of construction workers under the supervision of archaeologists have started the repair work. Mr Abbasi did not give an estimated cost of the damages at Mohenjo Daro but Pakistan’s government has said the overall damages from the flood may be over $13bn now.