Schleicher's Fable: A Reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European Language

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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Schleicher's fable serves as an excellent example of the efforts made by linguists to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language. It was created in 1868 by August Schleicher, who was the first to compose a text in PIE to demonstrate what this proto-language might have sounded like. The fable is titled "Avis akvāsas ka" ("The Sheep and the Horses") and has since undergone numerous revisions and adaptations by various linguists as our understanding of PIE has evolved. The different versions of the fable represent not only the various interpretations of the proto-language but also provide an opportunity to trace the evolution of ideas and theories about the character and structure of PIE over the centuries.

The History of Reconstruction

Through his work, Schleicher aimed to depict the Proto-Indo-European language as it was understood in the 19th century. This language no longer exists in any living form, and his work represents an attempt to reconstruct it through comparisons and studies of linguistic data from various Indo-European languages, such as Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and other ancient tongues. His initial attempt was revolutionary for its time, as it laid the foundations for the reconstruction of the proto-language by proposing specific phonological and morphological rules.

The original version of Schleicher's fable tells a brief story where a sheep converses with two horses, discussing the state of human society. The interest in this composition lies not so much in the narrative itself but in the attempt to capture the linguistic form of PIE based on the data available at that time.

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Read also: Wool and the Indo-Anatolian Hypothesis: A Linguistic and Archaeological Approach

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Revisions of the Fable

After Schleicher’s initial publication, several other linguists undertook the task of revising and adapting the fable as our understanding of PIE continued to progress. Some of the most notable revisions include:

1. Hermann Hirt (1939): Hirt published the first significant revision of the fable, adding new phonological and grammatical details that emerged from recent linguistic discoveries. His version presented more complex and precise sounds, reflecting the advancements in understanding the linguistic rules of PIE.

2. Winfred Lehmann and Ladislav Zgusta (1979): The work of Lehmann and Zgusta introduced innovations in morphology and syntax, incorporating more accurate rules concerning word roots and suffixes. Their version contributed to a better understanding of how PIE diversified into various language families.

3. Douglas Q. Adams (1997): Adams' version, published in the "Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture," introduced new theories about phonetic shifts and the evolution of vowels. His work presented a version of PIE more faithful to the complex phonological reality emerging from comparisons with modern Indo-European languages.

4. Frederik Kortlandt (2007): The most recent revision by Kortlandt integrated the latest theories on PIE phonology and grammar, utilizing newer linguistic methods and data. His version marked a significant step forward in understanding the dynamic evolution of PIE, including details on phonetic development and the use of prepositions.

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Sheep and the Horses

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Avis akvāsas ka.

Avis, jasmin varnā na ā ast, dadarka akvams, tam, vāgham garum vaghantam, tam, bhāram magham, tam, manum āku bharantam. Avis akvabhjams ā vavakat: kard aghnutai mai vidanti manum akvams agantam.

Akvāsas ā vavakant: krudhi avai, kard aghnutai vividvant-svas: manus patis varnām avisāms karnauti svabhjam gharmam vastram avibhjams ka varnā na asti.

Tat kukruvants avis agram ā bhugat.

English translation:

The Sheep and the Horses

A sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.

Hirt (1939)

Owis ek'wōses-kʷe

Owis, jesmin wᵇlənā ne ēst, dedork'e ek'wons, tom, woghom gʷᵇrum weghontm̥, tom, bhorom megam, tom, gh'ьmonm̥ ōk'u bherontm̥. Owis ek'womos ewьwekʷet: k'ērd aghnutai moi widontei gh'ᵇmonm̥ ek’wons ag'ontm̥. Ek'wōses ewᵇwekʷont: kl'udhi, owei!, k'ērd aghnutai widontmos: gh'ᵇmo, potis, wᵇlənām owjôm kʷr̥neuti sebhoi ghʷermom westrom; owimos-kʷe wᵇlənā ne esti. Tod k'ek'ruwos owis ag'rom ebhuget.

Lehmann and Zgusta (1979)

Owis eḱwōskʷe

Gʷərēi owis, kʷesjo wl̥hnā ne ēst, ek̂wōns espek̂et, oinom ghe gʷr̥um woĝhom weĝhontm̥, oinomkʷe meǵam bhorom, oinomkʷe ĝhm̥enm̥ ōk̂u bherontm̥.

Owis nu ek̂wobh(y)os (ek̂womos) ewewkʷet: "k̂ēr aghnutoi moi ek̂wōns aĝontm̥ nerm̥ widn̥tei".

Eḱwōs tu ewewkʷont: "k̂ludhi, owei, k̂ēr ghe aghnutoi n̥smei widn̥tbh(y)os (widn̥tmos): nēr, potis, owiōm r̥ wl̥hnām sebhi gʷhermom westrom kʷrn̥euti. Neǵhi owiōm wl̥hnā esti".

Tod k̂ek̂luwōs owis aĝrom ebhuget.

Danka (1986)

Owis ek'woi kʷe

Owis, jesmin wl̥nā ne ēst, dedork'e ek'wons woghom gʷr̥um weghontn̥s - bhorom meg'əm, monum ōk'u bherontn̥s. Owis ek'wobhos eweukʷet: K'erd aghnutai moi widn̥tei g'hm̥onm̥ ek'wons ag'ontm̥. Ek'woi eweukʷont: K'ludhi, owi, k'erd aghnutai dedr̥k'usbhos: monus potis wl̥nām owiōm temneti: sebhei ghʷermom westrom - owibhos kʷe wl̥nā ne esti. Tod k'ek'luwōs owis ag'rom ebhuget.

Adams (1997)

H₂óu̯is h₁ék̂u̯ōs-kʷe

Gʷr̥hₓḗi h₂óu̯is, kʷési̯o u̯lh₂néh₄ ne (h₁é) est, h₁ék̂u̯ons spék̂et, h₁oinom ghe gʷr̥hₓúm u̯óĝhom u̯éĝhontm̥ h₁oinom-kʷe méĝhₐm bhórom, h₁oinom-kʷe ĝhménm̥ hₓṓk̂u bhérontm̥. h₂óu̯is tu h₁ek̂u̯oibh(i̯)os u̯eukʷét: 'k̂ḗr hₐeghnutór moi h₁ék̂u̯ons hₐéĝontm̥ hₐnérm̥ u̯idn̥téi. h₁ék̂u̯ōs tu u̯eukʷónt: 'k̂ludhí, h₂óu̯ei, k̂ḗr ghe hₐeghnutór n̥sméi u̯idn̥tbh(i̯)ós. hₐnḗr, pótis, h₂éu̯i̯om r̥ u̯l̥h₂néhₐm sebhi kʷr̥néuti nu gʷhérmom u̯éstrom néĝhi h₂éu̯i̯om u̯l̥h₂néhₐ h₁ésti.' Tód k̂ek̂luu̯ṓs h₂óu̯is hₐéĝrom bhugét.

Lühr (2008)

h₂ówis h₁ék’wōskʷe

h₂ówis, (H)jésmin h₂wlh₂néh₂ ne éh₁est, dedork'e (h₁)ék'wons, tóm, wóg'ʰom gʷérh₂um wég'ʰontm, tóm, bʰórom még'oh₂m, tóm, dʰg'ʰémonm h₂oHk'ú bʰérontm. h₂ówis (h₁)ék'wobʰos ewewkʷe(t): k'ḗrd h₂gʰnutoj moj widntéj dʰg'ʰmónm (h₁)ék'wons h₂ég'ontm. (h₁)ék'wōs ewewkʷ: k'ludʰí, h₂ówi! k'ḗrd h₂gʰnutoj widntbʰós: dʰg'ʰémō(n), pótis, h₂wlnéh₂m h₂ówjom kʷnewti sébʰoj gʷʰérmom wéstrom; h₂éwibʰoskʷe h₂wlh₂néh₂ né h₁esti. Tód k'ek'luwṓs h₂ówis h₂ég'rom ebʰuge(t).

Voyles and Barrack (2009)

Owis eḱwōs kʷe

Owis, jāi wl̥nā ne eest, dedorḱe eḱwons, tom woǵʰom gʷr̥um weǵʰontm̥, tom bʰorom meǵm̥, tom ǵʰm̥onm̥ ōku bʰerontm̥. Owis eḱwobʰjos eweket: "Ḱerd angʰetai moi widontei ǵʰm̥onm̥ eḱwons aǵontm̥". Eḱwos wewekur: "Ḱludʰe, owei! Ḱerd angʰetai widontbʰjos: ǵʰm̥on, potis, wl̥nam owijōm kʷr̥neti soi gʷʰermom westrom; owibʰjos kʷe wl̥nā ne esti". Tod ḱeḱlōts owis aǵrom ebʰuget.

Melchert (2009, revised 2014)

H₂ówis (h₁)ék̂wōs-kʷe

h₂áwej h₁josméj h₂wl̥h₁náh₂ né h₁ést, só h₁ék̂woms derk̂t. só gʷr̥hₓúm wóĝhom wéĝhet; só méĝh₂m̥ bhórom; só (dh)gĥémonm̥ h₂ṓk̂u bhéret. h₂ówis h₁ék̂wojbh(j)os wéwk(ʷ)et: (dh)ĝhémonm̥ spék̂joh₂ h₁ék̂woms h₁jós h₂áĝeti, k̂ḗr moj aghnutór. h₁ék̂wōs tu wéwkʷont: k̂ludhí, h₂owei! tód spék̂jomes/n, n̥sméi aghnutór k̂ḗr: (dh)ĝhémō pótis sē h₂áwjōm h₂wl̥h₁nā́h₁ gʷhérmom wéstrom (h₁)wébht, h₂áwibh(j)os tu h₂wl̥h₁náh₂ né h₁ésti. tód k̂ek̂luwṓs h₂ówis h₂aĝróm bhugét.

Kortlandt (2007, revised 2010)

ʕʷeuis ʔiḱ:ueskʷ:e

ʕʷeuis i ʕueli nēʔst ʔeḱ:ums uēit:, t:o kʷ'rʕeum uoḱom uḱent:m, t:o mḱ'eʕm porom, t:o tḱmenm ʔoʔḱ:u prent:m. uēuk:t ʕʷeuis ʔiḱ:uos, ʕetḱo ʔme ḱ:ērt ʕnerm uit'ent:i ʔeḱ:ums ʕḱ'ent:m. ueuk:nt: ʔiḱ:ues, ḱ:luti ʕʷue, ʕetḱo nsme ḱ:ērt: uit'ent:i, ʕnēr p:ot:is ʕʷuiom ʕueli sue kʷermom uesti kʷ:rneut:i, ʕʷuēi kʷ:e ʕueli neʔsti. t:o ḱ:eḱ:luus ʕʷeuis pleʕnom pēuk't.

After the separation of Anatolian and Tocharian:

ʕʷeuis ioi ʕulʔneʕ nēʔs ʔeḱuns ʔe uēi'd, tom 'gʷrʕeum uoǵom ueǵontm, tom m'ǵeʕm borom, tom dǵmenm ʔoʔḱu berontm. ʔe uēuk ʕʷeuis ʔeḱumus, ʕedǵo ʔmoi ḱēr'd ʕnerm ui'denti ʔeḱuns ʕe'ǵontm. ʔe ueukn'd ʔiḱues, ḱludi ʕʷuei, ʕedǵo nsmi ḱēr'd ui'denti, ʕnēr potis ʕʷuiom ʕulʔneʕm subi gʷermom uesti kʷrneuti, ʕʷuimus kʷe ʕulʔneʕ neʔsti. to'd ḱeḱluus ʕʷeuis pleʕnom bēu'g.

Byrd (2013)

H₂óu̯is h₁éḱu̯ōs-kʷe

h₂áu̯ei̯ h₁i̯osméi̯ h₂u̯l̥h₁náh₂ né h₁ést, só h₁éḱu̯oms derḱt. só gʷr̥hₓúm u̯óǵʰom u̯eǵʰed; só méǵh₂m̥ bʰórom; só dʰǵʰémonm̥ h₂ṓḱu bʰered. h₂óu̯is h₁ékʷoi̯bʰi̯os u̯eu̯ked: "dʰǵʰémonm̥ spéḱi̯oh₂ h₁éḱu̯oms-kʷe h₂áǵeti, ḱḗr moi̯ agʰnutor". h₁éḱu̯ōs tu u̯eu̯kond: "ḱludʰí, h₂ou̯ei̯! tód spéḱi̯omes, n̥sméi̯ agʰnutór ḱḗr: dʰǵʰémō, pótis, sē h₂áu̯i̯es h₂u̯l̥h₁náh₂ gʷʰérmom u̯éstrom u̯ept, h₂áu̯ibʰi̯os tu h₂u̯l̥h₁náh₂ né h₁esti". tód ḱeḱluu̯ṓs h₂óu̯is h₂aǵróm bʰuged.

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The Significance of Reconstructions

The reconstructions of PIE through Schleicher's fable should not be regarded as precise renditions of the original language. Instead, they represent an approximation to historical truth, a form of "plausible" approach, as Boeckh points out. Reconstructions are based on hypotheses and conclusions drawn from the study of descendant languages of PIE, and they provide an algebraic depiction of the linguistic system, though not entirely accurate.

As Delbrück notes, the PIE reconstructed through such texts is not a real language that was once spoken but rather a "typical expression" of the evolving views of researchers. The differences among the versions of the fable reflect the evolution of linguistic thought: as methods improve and data increase, the picture we form of PIE becomes clearer and closer to historical reality.

This is the Most Sophisticated Model for Indo-European Language Relationships

Schleicher's fable is a fascinating linguistic exercise that reveals the complexity of reconstructing a lost language. These efforts are undoubtedly theoretical, yet they have the potential to offer a realistic depiction of the proto-language through detailed analysis and comparison. The process of reconstruction is evidence of how science can use past data to construct images of a historical world that no longer exists, and Schleicher's fable is a perfect example of this ongoing effort by linguists.

Schleicher's fable continues to be refined, demonstrating that linguistics is not static but constantly evolving, shaping new approaches to understand the earliest phase of languages spoken by the ancestors of cultures throughout Eurasia.

Mycenaean Amber: A Symbol of Sun, Status, and Cross-Cultural Connections in the Bronze Age

Amber, the fossilized tree resin renowned for its golden hues and timeless beauty, was much more than a decorative element for the Mycenaeans, one of the earliest advanced civilizations in Greece. New research spearheaded by Professor Janusz Czebreszuk, Director of the Polish Archaeological Institute in Athens, sheds light on the cultural and symbolic importance of amber for this Bronze Age society. According to this study, amber not only represented the sun but was also a marker of social status, denoting the elite class within Mycenaean culture, which thrived between 1750 and 1050 BCE.

The Mycenaean Civilization: A Hub of Power and Prestige

The Mycenaeans are celebrated as the first advanced civilization on the Greek mainland, known for their impressive palaces, intricate urban planning, and sophisticated art. Their society was also marked by the use of a unique script, known as Linear B, which provides valuable insights into their economic and social structures. While the grandeur of their architecture and the complexity of their trade networks have long been recognized, recent findings reveal that the Mycenaeans had a special appreciation for amber, primarily among the upper echelons of society. Adornments crafted from this resin, such as necklaces and pectorals, have been discovered in numerous gravesites, particularly those belonging to the elites, underscoring amber’s role as a symbol of prestige.

Amber: The Sunstone of the North

Research into these amber artifacts has traced their origins back to the Baltic region, specifically around the Bay of Gdańsk—a historical center for amber trade. This suggests that the Mycenaeans were part of a vast and intricate trade network that connected them with distant parts of Europe. According to Professor Czebreszuk, the Mycenaeans likely brought amber with them as they migrated from northern areas such as Macedonia or Epirus. This implies not just a movement of people but also a transfer of cultural beliefs and religious practices associated with amber.

In Central Europe, where amber was abundant, Neolithic artifacts often depicted disc-shaped designs with radiating patterns, symbolizing the sun. Amber, with its warm, glowing appearance, was thought to embody the sun's power, a belief that was carried into the Mediterranean by the Mycenaeans. "Amber arrived in Hellas with the religious meanings it held in the north," Czebreszuk remarked, highlighting the continuity of sun symbolism across regions.

Mythological and Symbolic Significance

The symbolic value of amber in Mycenaean culture was further enhanced by its mythological associations. In Greek mythology, amber is linked to the tale of Phaethon, the son of Helios, the sun god. According to legend, Phaethon attempted to drive his father’s sun chariot but lost control, leading to his tragic death. His grieving sisters, the Heliades, wept endlessly, and their tears transformed into amber. This mythological connection with the sun reinforced the belief that amber was a physical embodiment of sunlight, making it a prized possession for the Mycenaean elite.

Professor Czebreszuk notes that possessing amber was akin to holding a fragment of the sun, a powerful symbol of divine favor and authority. "Whoever had amber, whoever had an amber necklace, in a sense possessed a piece of the Sun. Those who had it, and these were the elites, used amber to legitimize their claims to a superior position in society," he explained. Through this association, Mycenaean leaders could assert their social status and power, using amber as a means to reinforce their authority and divine connection.

Small amber blocks. Credit: Olga Kovalski

Amber and the Trade Networks of Bronze Age Europe

The distribution of amber in Mycenaean gravesites reflects the extensive trade networks that existed during the Bronze Age. Amber was not a local product in Greece but was transported over long distances, passing through numerous hands before reaching the Mycenaean elites. The Bay of Gdańsk, situated along the Baltic coast, was a major hub for the amber trade, and this region's connections extended as far as the British Isles to the west and the steppes of Ukraine to the east. These trade routes facilitated not only the exchange of goods but also the movement of ideas, technologies, and even people.

Genetic studies suggest that interregional marriages often cemented these trading relationships, creating alliances between distant elite groups. Amber, thus, was more than just a luxury item; it was a token of these alliances, circulating among the elite as part of a broader exchange system that linked distant communities. Professor Czebreszuk emphasized the significance of these networks: "Amber had a wide distribution, and ancient deposits were primarily known in areas around the Baltic and North Sea." This wide distribution underscores the complex trade routes and social connections that defined the Bronze Age world.

Insights from Modern Research

The establishment of the Polish Archaeological Institute in Athens in 2019 has enabled Polish researchers to conduct in-depth studies of ancient artifacts like amber. Through these efforts, scholars aim to uncover the production techniques, trade dynamics, and cultural exchanges that defined the Bronze Age. By examining different varieties of fossil resin, such as succinite, researchers can determine not only the origins of the amber pieces but also gain insights into the workshops and craftspeople who produced them. This, in turn, sheds light on the broader economic and social systems that facilitated the movement of amber across Europe.

As Professor Czebreszuk explains, "We can determine where the find originated, where the workshop was, and what knowledge the producer had." This research is crucial for understanding the Mycenaean elites who wore these amber adornments, as well as the networks that connected them to other powerful groups across the continent. The study of amber, therefore, opens a window into the complex world of Bronze Age trade, revealing a web of connections that spanned vast distances and brought together diverse cultures.

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Read also: The Origins of Mycenaean Gold: Thrace, Egypt, or Beyond?

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The view of Mycenaean migration from the north, as proposed by Professor Czebreszuk, while intriguing, contrasts with the findings of contemporary genetic research and prevailing archaeological theories. Recent genetic studies indicate a consistent genetic continuity among Aegean populations from the Early Bronze Age through the Classical Period, suggesting that the Mycenaeans developed locally without the need for mass migratory movements. Additionally, archaeological research emphasizes the cultural evolution of Mycenaean societies through the integration and exchange of goods, technologies, and ideas with other regions of the Mediterranean and Europe, rather than through population shifts. Archaeological evidence points to extensive trade networks connecting the Aegean with Northern Europe, the Eastern Mediterranean, and the Black Sea, demonstrating that amber, metals, and other materials circulated via trade rather than migration. The migration theory, popular during the previous century, is now considered outdated, as data supports local cultural development with an openness to external influences, reinforcing the image of the Mycenaeans as a dynamic and cosmopolitan civilization that cultivated connections with the wider world without the need for relocations.

ConclusionAmber was not merely a decorative accessory for the Mycenaeans; it was a symbol of power, divine favor, and social status. Its warm, sun-like appearance, coupled with its mythological associations, made it a coveted material among the Mycenaean elite. The discovery of Baltic amber in Mycenaean gravesites points to an extensive trade network that linked distant regions of Europe, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices. Through ongoing research, archaeologists continue to uncover the stories behind these ancient connections, revealing the depth and complexity of the Mycenaean world and its interactions with the broader Bronze Age Europe.

Wool and the Indo-Anatolian Hypothesis: A Linguistic and Archaeological Approach

Linguistic research on the Indo-European language family has been a cornerstone of historical and archaeological studies, allowing researchers to connect ancient languages with migration and cultural patterns. Within this expansive language family, the Indo-Anatolian hypothesis emerges as a critical sub-theory that suggests that the Anatolian branch, which includes Hittite and Luwian languages, split early from Proto-Indo-European (PIE). This hypothesis reshapes our understanding of language evolution, migration, and the technological developments of ancient civilizations.

Archaeolinguistics has become an essential tool in this interdisciplinary field, marrying linguistic evidence with archaeological findings. One such case is the study of wool and its significance in tracing cultural exchange and technological innovation, particularly in the context of Indo-European-speaking populations and their Anatolian counterparts. Alwin Kloekhorst presented a paper on the Indo-Anatolian hypothesis on October 5 and 6, 2023, using the linguistic evidence surrounding the word "wool" as its main focus.

The Domestication of Sheep and the Rise of Wool Production

The domestication of sheep, dating back to around 8000 BCE in Mesopotamia, plays a vital role in understanding early human economies. Initially, sheep were primarily valued for their meat, milk, and skins. However, by the 6th to 4th millennia BCE, selective breeding led to the emergence of woolly sheep, particularly in regions like Iran. Wool, as a product, revolutionized textile production, and its spread across regions provides critical insights into the technological advancements of ancient cultures.

By the early 3rd millennium BCE, wool production had reached northern Mesopotamia, and there is evidence of woolly sheep dispersal towards the steppes. These developments parallel the spread of Indo-European languages, raising questions about the interconnectedness of linguistic and technological diffusion.

Wool in Anatolian Languages A Linguistic Perspective

In the context of Indo-European languages, wool holds linguistic significance as well. In Hittite, the word for wool appears in various forms, such as the widespread use of the Sumerogram SÍG. Through textual evidence, we see that Hittite used the term "SÍG" for wool, indicating that the knowledge of wool production and weaving was well-established in the Anatolian region.

Interestingly, linguistic analysis shows two distinct stems in the Hittite language for wool: ḫulii̯a- and ḫulan(a)-. Both forms, while indicating wool, exhibit different grammatical usages and highlight how linguistic evolution can track technological innovations, like wool production, in ancient cultures. The suffixes -ii̯a- and -āli- are common Indo-European nominal endings, while -ana- presents an anomaly, showcasing potential inner-Anatolian developments.

Comparative Indo-European Linguistics and the Etymology of Wool

The study of wool across Indo-European languages reveals deep-rooted connections. The word for wool appears in various Indo-European languages, such as:

• Sanskrit: ū́rṇā

• Ancient Greek: λῆνος

• Latin: lāna

• Old Church Slavonic: vlъna

• Lithuanian: vìlna

• Gothic: wulla

These terms trace their origins to the Proto-Indo-European root h2ulh1n(e)h2-, as proposed by researchers like Peters (1980). However, the Anatolian forms present problems when compared with other Indo-European languages. In particular, Proto-Indo-European h2ulh1n(e)h2- does not yield the expected forms in Anatolian, prompting further inquiry into whether these divergences support the Indo-Anatolian hypothesis.

Issues with Etymological Comparisons

One significant issue arises when comparing the Anatolian word for wool with the equivalent terms in other Indo-European languages. Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters, such as Ch1C, usually do not simplify into forms like CaC in Anatolian languages. This divergence is exemplified in the difference between the Proto-Indo-European h2ulh1n(e)h2- and the Hittite form ḫulana-, suggesting an intermediate stage like ḫulna- with an added anaptyctic vowel to preserve phonetic integrity.

Additionally, another issue lies in the absence of h2- in Greek forms like λῆνος and λείνα, complicating efforts to reconcile the Greek and Anatolian data. The Greek evolution seems to imply an older, perhaps Pre-Greek form, while the Anatolian word for wool appears to have developed along a separate trajectory, further supporting the idea of early Anatolian divergence.

Conclusion: Reconsidering the Indo-Anatolian Hypothesis through Wool

The research presented by Alwin Kloekhorst challenges long-held assumptions regarding the presence of a common Proto-Indo-European (PIE) term for wool across the Indo-Anatolian languages. The conclusion that the lexeme h₂ulh₁n(e)h₂- for ‘wool’ likely never existed within PIE forces a reevaluation of how the Indo-Anatolian languages developed in relation to wool-related vocabulary. In particular, the Anatolian word ḫulan-, which refers to wool, appears to be independent of the late PIE term, suggesting that the Anatolian branch diverged early from the rest of the PIE family, long before the spread of wool technology across Eurasia.

Furthermore, the PIE term ulh₁n(e)h₂- seems to have been created later, in the post-Tocharian PIE era, around 2700 BCE. This period aligns with the introduction of wool production to the Pontic steppes, indicating that language adapted alongside technological advancements. The evidence supports the idea that the spread of wool and its associated terminology was not a universal phenomenon across all Indo-European languages but rather emerged as wool became a vital resource in specific regions.

Lastly, the root hul-, found in Anatolian languages, could be a borrowing from external sources, such as Hurrian. This borrowing emphasizes the complexity of linguistic evolution and the significant cultural exchanges between ancient peoples. By integrating linguistic evidence with archaeological data, Kloekhorst’s conclusions offer a more nuanced understanding of the development of wool production and its terminology, illustrating that the linguistic divergences in Anatolia better align with the archaeological timeline of wool's spread than previous theories suggested.

Ice Age Rhino Fossil Unearthed in Mycenae: Insights into Bronze Age Rituals

A fascinating fossil discovery in Mycenae, dating back to the Ice Age, has sparked new insights into ancient Greek society. The fossil is a two-horned rhinoceros astragalus, or ankle bone, from the species Stephanorhinus, found at the Acropolis of Mycenae during the Late Bronze Age (13th century BCE). The fossil’s collection and preservation raise questions about its significance to the Mycenaeans. Was it part of a ritual, a game, or used as a weight for measuring? The discovery, published in Nature, suggests the fossil may have inspired myths of mythical beings, such as giants or heroes.

The research led by Dr. Vasiliki Pliatsika, Dr. Jacqueline Meier, and Professor Kim Shelton uncovers the earliest known case of fossil collecting in mainland Greece. The fossil was unearthed in the 1970s but was only recently analyzed. It is an unusual find for Mycenae, especially since such fossils are rare in archaeological excavations in Greece. The size and weight of the fossil suggest that it was recognized as special by the Mycenaeans, perhaps attributed to a fantastical or ancient creature.

The fossil was found in a central underground room of a building in the southwestern quarter of Mycenae’s Acropolis, an area with residential remains. This placement may indicate that the Mycenaeans considered it a valuable and significant object. The room itself had limited natural light and rudimentary internal features, which leads researchers to reconsider the room’s purpose, possibly connected to rituals or games.

The rediscovered fossil astragalus from Mycenae, (A) posterior view with excavation tag, and (B) from various aspects. Photos by Meier.

Pliatsika and her colleagues suggest the fossil might have been used in religious or magical rituals, or even as a gaming piece or weight. The fossil weighs exactly 500 grams, coincidentally matching the weight of a mina, a unit of measurement in the Late Bronze Age. Ancient Greeks often repurposed such animal bones, sometimes filling them with lead to use as gaming dice or weights, adding another layer of mystery to its function.

The research underscores the rarity of paleontological finds from ancient Greece, particularly from the Bronze Age. While ancient texts frequently mention fossil discoveries and the myths they inspired, such as giants and Cyclopes, the physical evidence is sparse. This Mycenaean fossil contributes to our understanding of how ancient societies viewed their distant past and the natural world around them.

Ultimately, this find suggests that the Mycenaeans were not only aware of their history but actively sought connections to a mythological past. By collecting and preserving such fossils, they may have participated in the creation of myths, embedding them in their cultural and heroic narratives. The study adds a new dimension to how we perceive Mycenaean society, emphasizing their complex relationship with history and myth.

Viking Age Settlement Traces Unveiled at Naur Church: Aerial Photoarchaeology’s New Frontier in Denmark

Recent advances in aerial photoarchaeology have uncovered traces of a Viking Age settlement near Naur Church, close to Holstebro, Denmark. This discovery, part of a larger effort to map Denmark’s historical landscape, highlights the immense potential of using airborne technologies to reveal cultural heritage sites that have long remained invisible.

Pioneering Aerial Photoarchaeology in Denmark

Aerial photoarchaeology has become a vital tool for uncovering traces of Denmark's ancient past, providing a perspective from above that ground-based archaeology cannot offer. Archaeologists Lis Helles Olesen from Holstebro Museum and Esben Schlosser Mauritsen from Ringkøbing-Skjern Museum have been at the forefront of this innovative approach. Together, they recently published Aerial Photoarchaeology in Denmark, documenting the results of extensive aerial surveys conducted between 2008 and 2012.

The team dedicated 220 hours of flight time, covering 745 locations, primarily focusing on crop marks—changes in vegetation patterns caused by buried archaeological features. Their findings were remarkable: 84 percent of the identified features were previously unknown, a testament to the potential of aerial photoarchaeology to transform our understanding of Denmark’s past. Their surveys covered large swaths of western and southern Jutland, extending into Himmerland, Salling, and northern Funen.

Technological Advances in Aerial Archaeology

Aerial archaeology has developed rapidly in recent years, particularly with the integration of advanced technologies such as multispectral imaging, laser scanning, drones, and magnetometry. Multispectral imaging, for example, allows researchers to detect subtle differences in vegetation that may indicate buried structures, while laser scanning (LiDAR) can penetrate forest canopies to reveal landscape features hidden to the naked eye.

Traces of a Viking Age settlement at Naur Church near Holstebro. The round dark green spots are traces of buried work huts. Photos: from the book

Olesen emphasizes the importance of continuing to push the boundaries of these techniques in Denmark, noting that significant advancements are already taking place internationally. Among the more promising developments are the use of green laser technologies, which can even penetrate clear water, opening up new possibilities for uncovering underwater archaeological sites.

Mapping Cultural Heritage from the Sky

Olesen and Mauritsen argue that aerial photoarchaeology holds the key to better preserving Denmark’s cultural heritage. They recommend the continued prioritization of this method, combined with the study of existing aerial photographs, laser scans, and geophysical methods, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of Denmark’s prehistory. By mapping archaeological sites from above, researchers can gain insight into ancient settlements, burial sites, and agricultural practices that might otherwise go unnoticed.

Financial and Societal Implications

Despite its promising results, aerial photoarchaeology faces financial challenges. Olesen points out that the current system of financing Danish archaeology limits the potential for method development and broader studies. Most archaeological funding is allocated for specific excavations, leaving little room for the development of new techniques or the publication of findings.

Olesen proposes a new funding model: instead of builders paying for individual excavations on construction sites, a small percentage of construction costs could be allocated to an archaeological fund. This fund could then be used to finance large-scale surveys, develop new technologies, and ensure the publication of findings, making archaeological research more sustainable and widely accessible.

Trelleborg type house (Fyrkat), photo by Esben Schlosser Mauritsen

A Legacy of Aerial Archaeology

The recent discoveries at Naur Church build on Denmark’s longstanding tradition of aerial archaeology. In 2002, Olesen and her husband, Palle Eriksen, published Fortiden set fra himlen (The Past Seen from the Sky), the first Danish book on aerial archaeology. This work helped establish connections with international experts and cemented Denmark’s place in the global archaeological community. The current project is now recognized as a national undertaking and forms part of the broader EU-funded ArchaeoLandscapes Europe initiative.

The project owes much to early pioneers like museum inspector Hans Stiesdal of the National Museum, who was the first in Denmark to seriously engage with aerial archaeology, even obtaining a pilot’s license to pursue this research. Stiesdal’s legacy lives on as today’s archaeologists continue to uncover traces of Denmark’s ancient past from the skies.

Traces of the Past, Seen from the Skies

The ability to soar above the landscape offers archaeologists a unique view of the traces left by ancient peoples. Flying over a golden cornfield, one might spot the outlines of Iron Age longhouses, ancient wells, and the remnants of fences that once enclosed bustling farmsteads. These traces, long hidden beneath the surface, emerge as warm reminders of the communities that once thrived in Denmark.

As Olesen and Mauritsen put it, “When we rise above the ground, we can see the traces of our ancestors' behavior. With our images, the hidden cultural heritage becomes visible, and we also get the opportunity to preserve it for posterity.” Their work opens a new chapter in Danish archaeology, inviting curious readers and fellow researchers into the cockpit to witness firsthand the transformative power of aerial photoarchaeology.

With the continued development of these airborne methods and the expansion of archaeological mapping efforts, the future of Denmark’s cultural heritage is set to be better understood, preserved, and appreciated by generations to come.

Archaeologists Identify Possible Key Region for Neanderthal and Homo Sapiens Interbreeding

A new archaeological study has identified the Zagros Mountains, located on the Persian Plateau, as a significant zone where interbreeding between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens likely occurred during the Late Pleistocene, roughly 50,000–60,000 years ago. This mountainous region, situated between two major biogeographical realms (the Palearctic and Afrotropical), became a key refuge during periods of climatic shifts, making it a favorable meeting ground for different human species.

Using advanced ecological niche modeling, the researchers were able to analyze environmental factors like temperature and precipitation to determine where Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans might have coexisted. The Zagros region, particularly in areas like Shanidar Cave and Bawa Yawan rock shelter, yielded both fossil and archaeological evidence supporting this theory. Notably, a Neanderthal tooth found in Bawa Yawan, dated to around 65,000 years ago, was discovered alongside Mousterian tools, further solidifying this region as a critical point of contact.

The implications of this study are profound, as genetic evidence shows that Neanderthal DNA, comprising 1–4% of the genome in non-African populations today, affects traits such as immune responses and skin pigmentation. By pinpointing potential interbreeding zones like the Zagros Mountains, scientists are piecing together a more nuanced understanding of human evolution, particularly how these two species shaped the genetic makeup of modern humans.

Habitat suitability models of the two Homo species and their potential contact and interbreeding zones in Southwest Asia and Southeast Europe. This figure was generated in QGIS 3.14.1 (www.qgis.org). The figures of the Neanderthal (left) and modern human (right) are adapted from www.demorgen.be.

This discovery not only underscores the importance of geographical features in human migration and interaction but also deepens our understanding of Neanderthals as complex beings who may have practiced rituals such as flower burials—behaviors once thought exclusive to Homo sapiens. Continued research in this region is expected to reveal even more about the interwoven histories of these ancient populations.

For further details, you can refer to the original study and analysis published in Scientific Reports.

New Findings Reinforce the Authenticity Debate of the Turin Shroud

The Shroud of Turin, a linen cloth revered by many as the burial shroud of Jesus Christ, has mystified scholars and believers alike for centuries. First unveiled in the 1350s, the shroud displays a faint image of a man, which has been the subject of intense debate regarding its origins and authenticity.

When it was initially presented, the Shroud was heralded as the actual burial cloth used to wrap the body of Christ after his crucifixion. The image on the shroud, depicting a bearded man with his arms crossed, was believed by many to be a miraculous imprint of Jesus himself. However, scientific research in the 1980s cast doubt on this claim, dating the fabric to the Middle Ages, long after Jesus lived.

Recent studies by Italian scientists, employing cutting-edge techniques involving x-rays, have reignited the debate by dating the shroud's material to around 2,000 years ago, a timeline consistent with the era of Jesus. This finding supports the theory that the bloodstained pattern on the shroud could indeed have been left by Jesus’ body after his crucifixion.

According to the Bible, Joseph of Arimathea wrapped Jesus’ body in a linen shroud and placed it in a tomb. The Gospel of Matthew (27:59–60) details this event, which has been a cornerstone of Christian tradition. The Shroud of Turin, since its first public display in the 14th century, has fascinated historians, religious leaders, skeptics, and the faithful alike. It has been preserved in the Cathedral of San Giovanni Battista in Turin, Italy, since 1578.

The cloth itself reveals faint, brownish images of a gaunt man, standing between 5'7" and 6' tall, with markings that correspond to the crucifixion wounds described in the Bible, including thorn marks on the head, lacerations on the back, and bruises on the shoulders. These details align with the biblical account of Jesus’ suffering, suggesting that the man depicted on the shroud endured similar torture.

In 1988, an international team of researchers performed carbon dating on a small fragment of the shroud, concluding that the fabric originated between 1260 and 1390 AD. This finding was based on the decay of carbon-14, a radioactive isotope, which led many to dismiss the shroud as a medieval forgery.

Nevertheless, some experts have continued to challenge this conclusion, arguing that the linen could be genuine. They point out that the shroud is made of flax, which was commonly grown in the Middle East, and that the image on the fabric bears a striking resemblance to the traditional depiction of Jesus, complete with a crown of thorns.

In the latest study, researchers from Italy’s Institute of Crystallography of the National Research Council applied a technique called wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) to date the shroud. This method analyzes the natural aging of flax cellulose, converting it into a timeline from the fabric’s manufacture. The team examined eight small samples from the Shroud of Turin, using X-rays to reveal intricate details of the linen’s structure and the breakdown of its cellulose over time.

Cellulose, a component of plant cell walls, degrades at a measurable rate, providing insights into the age of the material. By assessing this degradation, the researchers estimated that the shroud was kept at a temperature of about 72.5 degrees Fahrenheit with 55 percent relative humidity for approximately 13 centuries before arriving in Europe. This analysis aligns the shroud’s origin with the first century AD, further supporting its authenticity.

The Bible states that, Joseph of Arimathea wrapped the body of Jesus in a linen shroud and placed it in a new tomb.

To validate their findings, the researchers compared the shroud’s cellulose degradation with that of other linens discovered in Israel dating back to the first century. They found that the data profiles were consistent with linen samples dated between 55 and 74 AD, such as those found at Masada, Israel, Herod's ancient fortress overlooking the Dead Sea.

Conversely, when the shroud’s degradation was compared with linens from the medieval period (1260–1390 AD), no similarities were found. The study concluded that to align the 1988 carbon dating results with the new findings, the shroud would have had to be preserved at an unusually high temperature throughout its supposed 700-year history—a scenario deemed highly unlikely.

Dr. Liberato De Caro, the study’s lead author, suggested that the 1988 carbon dating might have been flawed due to contamination that could not be entirely removed from the sample. He argued that carbon-14 dating is unreliable if the cleaning process is inadequate, which may have been the case in 1988. He also noted that there was a significant increase in carbon-14 concentration from the edges towards the center of the shroud, which could have skewed the dating results.

The Shroud of Turin remains one of the most studied and debated artifacts in history. Since the 1980s, over 170 peer-reviewed academic papers have examined the shroud, with many concluding that it is authentic. Earlier investigations in the 1970s explored whether the images were created by painting, scorching, or other means, but no definitive method was identified.

Further complicating the debate, in 2017, another team from the Institute of Crystallography found evidence of blood from a torture victim on the shroud, identifying substances like creatinine and ferritin, which are typically present in victims of severe trauma. These findings contradict the theory that the image was painted by medieval forgers.

As the scientific community continues to explore the mysteries of the Shroud of Turin, the debate over its authenticity endures. The recent discoveries add a compelling new dimension to this ancient puzzle, suggesting that the shroud may indeed date back to the time of Jesus and keeping alive the centuries-old quest to uncover the truth behind this enigmatic relic.

Scotland to Stonehenge: The Remarkable Voyage of the Altar Stone

Stonehenge, the ancient stone circle on Salisbury Plain in southern England, has puzzled and fascinated people for centuries. From medieval tales of wizards like Merlin magically transporting the stones from Ireland to theories involving the Romans, Vikings, and Druids, the origins of this iconic monument have long been shrouded in mystery. Recent research, however, sheds new light on one of Stonehenge’s most enigmatic features—the Altar Stone.

This large, flat stone, partially buried at the center of the monument, has always stood out among the other stones. A recent study suggests that it might have traveled an extraordinary distance—over 800 kilometers—from the far north of Scotland to its final resting place in England. This discovery adds a new chapter to the story of Stonehenge, highlighting the impressive capabilities of the Neolithic people who built it.

The Altar Stone is unique among Stonehenge’s stones. Most of the massive upright stones, known as sarsens, were sourced from the nearby Marlborough Downs, just 25 kilometers away. The smaller bluestones, which form a circle within the larger sarsen structure, were transported from the Mynydd Preseli mountains in Wales, about 240 kilometers from Stonehenge. The altar stone, however, is made of sandstone, a material not found in either of these locations.

Using advanced geochemical analysis, scientists have traced the origin of the Altar Stone to the Old Red Sandstone formations in the Orcadian Basin, located in the northeast of Scotland and the Orkney Islands. This is a remarkable finding, as it suggests that Neolithic people transported this six-tonne stone over a vast distance, likely by sea.

The idea of moving such a massive stone by land seems nearly impossible, given the rugged terrain between Scotland and southern England. A sea voyage, although risky, seems more plausible. Archaeologists believe that Neolithic people had the skills and technology to undertake such a journey, even though evidence of their boats has yet to be found. They were already transporting livestock like cattle, sheep, and goats across the sea, so moving a stone, although challenging, might have been within their capabilities.

The transport of the Altar Stone would have been a significant event, likely attracting attention and participation from communities along the way. The stone’s journey adds to our understanding of the connections between different regions of Britain during the Neolithic period. It also suggests that the builders of Stonehenge were not just skilled in construction but also had a deep understanding of the land and its resources.

While the study has provided valuable insights, the exact location in Scotland where the Altar Stone was quarried remains unknown. Researchers are continuing their work, hoping to uncover more about this fascinating stone and the people who moved it.

This discovery is just the latest in a long line of revelations about Stonehenge, and it’s unlikely to be the last. As scientists continue to study this ancient site, they are sure to uncover even more surprises, adding to the rich tapestry of stories that make Stonehenge one of the most intriguing monuments in the world.

Kalašma Language Deciphered: A Forgotten Indo-European Language of the Bronze Age Anatolia

The Rediscovery of Kalasma: A Glimpse into Anatolia's Multilingual Past

The ancient land of Anatolia, a crossroads of cultures and languages in the ancient world, has once again yielded a remarkable discovery. In 2023, during excavations in Hattuša, the capital of the once-mighty Hittite Empire, archaeologists uncovered a trove of cuneiform tablets that revealed a long-lost language: Kalašma. This discovery, located in the region that is today’s Boğazkale in Turkey, has opened a new chapter in our understanding of the linguistic and cultural diversity that flourished in Anatolia over three millennia ago.

Discovery and Decipherment

The discovery of the Kalašma language is centered around 174 cuneiform tablets found at the excavation site at the foot of Ambarlıkaya in Boğazköy-Hattusha. These tablets, dating back to the Late Bronze Age, were inscribed with a language that was previously unknown to scholars. The language has been identified as part of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family, a group that also includes Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic.

The decipherment of the Kalašma language was a collaborative effort involving several scholars. Professor Daniel Schwemer from the Department of Near Eastern Languages at the University of Würzburg played a key role in the initial transliteration of the texts from cuneiform to the Latin alphabet. His work was further analyzed by linguistics experts, including Professor Elisabet Rieken and Associate Professor Ilya Yakubovitich from the University of Marburg. Their combined efforts have allowed us to begin to understand the language and its significance.

The People of Kalašma

According to the findings, the Kalašma people inhabited a region near what is now the Gerede district of Bolu province in modern-day Turkey. The language of Kalašma, though similar to Luwian, which was spoken in southern Anatolia, represents a unique cultural and linguistic entity within the broader Hittite Empire. The Hittites, known for their vast empire that spanned much of Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, were highly interested in recording rituals and religious practices in the native languages of the regions they controlled. This practice not only reflects the Hittites' respect for local traditions but also their pragmatic approach to governance and control.

Hattuša excavation head Prof. Dr. Andreas Schachner

The Tablets and Their Content

The Kalašma tablets primarily contain texts related to daily life and celebrations, offering a rare glimpse into the everyday practices of this lost culture. While the content of the tablets does not provide groundbreaking historical information, it is invaluable for understanding the multilingual and multicultural landscape of Anatolia around 2000 BCE. The texts reveal that the Hittites, in their interactions with the conquered regions, incorporated local deities into their own pantheon, worshipping these gods in their native languages. This practice was likely intended to integrate these regions more firmly into the Hittite Empire by respecting and preserving their cultural identities.

One particularly intriguing aspect of the Kalašma texts is their religious significance. The tablets often reference rituals and ceremonies conducted in the Kalašma language, underscoring the importance of performing religious rites in a language that was believed to be understood by the gods of that region. The Hittites believed that the gods of Kalašma, like those of other regions, would not understand the Hittite language, hence the need to communicate with them in their native tongue. This practice highlights the deep-rooted belief in the power of language in religious and cultural contexts in the ancient world.

The Broader Linguistic Landscape of Anatolia

The discovery of Kalašma adds to the already complex linguistic tapestry of ancient Anatolia. The region was home to a variety of languages, including Hittite, Luwian, Palaic, and Hattic. The Hittites, in particular, left behind a rich archive of cuneiform texts that include not only their own language but also passages in these other languages. This reflects the diverse cultural influences that the Hittites encountered and absorbed over the centuries.

The significance of the Kalašma language lies not only in its uniqueness but also in what it tells us about the broader interactions between different cultures and languages in ancient Anatolia. The multilingual nature of the region, as evidenced by the variety of languages recorded in Hittite texts, suggests a high degree of cultural exchange and integration. The discovery of Kalašma, therefore, provides new insights into the ways in which the Hittites and their contemporaries navigated and managed this diversity.

The Future of Kalašma Studies

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The publication of the Kalašma texts, led by Professor Schwemer, is set to begin in November 2023. This publication will make the full corpus of 174 tablets available to scholars worldwide, paving the way for further research into this newly discovered language. As more is learned about Kalašma, it is likely that our understanding of the ancient world, particularly the intricate dynamics of language, culture, and power in Anatolia, will continue to evolve.

In conclusion, the rediscovery of the Kalašma language is a testament to the rich and diverse history of Anatolia. It underscores the region’s role as a melting pot of cultures and languages in the ancient world. As scholars continue to study the Kalašma texts, we can look forward to new insights into the lives of the people who once inhabited this fascinating region and the complex web of interactions that shaped their world.

The work ‘Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi (Cuneiform Texts from Boghazköi)’, written by Prof. Dr. Schwemer on the decipherment of 174 tablets, is now available digitally.

Researchers Discover Ancient Maya Water Filtration System, First in Western Hemisphere's

Advanced Technology in Ancient Tikal

Over 2,000 years ago, the Maya civilization constructed a sophisticated water filtration system in the city of Tikal, utilizing materials sourced from miles away. Recent excavations in northern Guatemala have unearthed remnants of this ancient engineering feat, as reported by Michelle Starr for Science Alert.

An Early Example of Modern Filtration

Published in the journal Scientific Reports, the research indicates that the Corriental reservoir filtration system was established as early as 2,185 years ago, shortly after Tikal's founding around 300 B.C. The system employed crystalline quartz and zeolite, minerals that formed a "molecular sieve" capable of filtering out harmful microbes, heavy metals, and other pollutants. Remarkably, these same minerals are still used in contemporary water filtration.

Lead author Kenneth Barnett Tankersley, an archaeologist at the University of Cincinnati, highlights the significance of this discovery, noting that the Maya developed this effective filtration method over two millennia ago. Previously, the use of zeolite for water filtration was believed to have originated in the early 20th century.

Advanced Engineering in the Maya Civilization

The Maya's water management techniques demonstrate a level of technological sophistication comparable to, and in some cases surpassing, other ancient civilizations. While ancient Egypt, Greece, and South Asia utilized simpler filtration methods as early as the 15th century B.C., the Maya's use of quartz and zeolite placed them millennia ahead in water purification technology.

Addressing Water Quality in Tikal

Tikal's location on porous limestone presented significant water scarcity challenges during seasonal droughts. The filtration system was crucial for ensuring safe drinking water, as the Corriental reservoir would have otherwise contained cyanobacteria and other toxins harmful to human health.

Previous research by the team identified mercury contamination in other Tikal reservoirs, likely from pigments used in ceremonial contexts. However, the Corriental reservoir remained free from such pollution, providing cleaner water for the city's inhabitants.

Hypothetical scheme of the ancient water purification system at Tikal. Macro-crystalline quartz crystal sand and zeolite filtration system positioned just upstream of, or within the reservoir ingress. Kenneth Barnett Tankersley used Microsoft PowerPoint for Mac Version 16.41 (www.microsoft.com) to create this figure.

Clever Resource Utilization

The study suggests that the Maya sourced quartz and zeolite from the Bajo de Azúcar area, about 18 miles northeast of Tikal, where these materials naturally purified water. Co-author Nicholas P. Dunning posits that the Maya likely observed the association between these materials and clean water, leading to their intentional transportation and use in Tikal's filtration system. The system's design included settling tanks to further purify water before it entered the reservoir, resulting in cleaner, better-tasting water.

Rediscovery of Tikal

Known as Yax Mutal to its ancient residents, Tikal housed over 3,000 structures and a population of at least 60,000 at its peak around 750 A.D. Following its abandonment 900 years ago, much of the city was hidden until Guatemalan archaeologists uncovered significant portions, including the Lost World complex of pyramids and buildings, in the late 20th century.

Tikal site map. (A) Location of Tikal in the southern Maya lowland. (B) The location of the Corriental, Palace, Perdido, Temple, and Tikal reservoirs, and the Inscription sinkhole and their catchment areas. (C) A lidar-derived hillshade image of the Corriental reservoir. The lidar-derived hillshade images (B,C) were created by Francisco Estrada-Belli, a principle of the PACUNAM Lidar initiative23. Christopher Carr used ESRI ArcGIS 10.3.1 software (www.esri.com) to create a GIS layer of the catchment areas, georeferenced on the hillshades to make the base maps. Kenneth Barnett Tankersley then used Microsoft PowerPoint for Mac Version 16.41 (www.microsoft.com) to create this figure.

Extensive written records provide a detailed history of Tikal's rulers over an 800-year span. In 1979, UNESCO designated Tikal National Park as a World Heritage site, recognizing its well-preserved structures and artistic achievements as evidence of Maya cultural and scientific development.

The newly discovered water filtration system enhances our understanding of Maya scientific advancements. Future research by Tankersley and his team aims to identify other Maya sites that may have employed similar water purification technologies.

Rewriting History: Princeton Researchers Reveal The Close Relationship Between Humans and Neanderthals

Princeton Researchers Reveal the Complex History of Neanderthals

Since discovering the first Neanderthal bones, scientists have been curious about how these ancient humans lived and interacted with us. Questions about our differences, similarities, and interactions—whether friendly or hostile—have persisted. The discovery of Denisovans, a Neanderthal-like group in Asia and Oceania, added more intrigue.

Now, a team of geneticists and AI experts, led by Joshua Akey from Princeton, is rewriting this history. They found that modern humans and Neanderthals had a much closer and frequent contact than previously thought.

"This is the first time we've identified multiple waves of mixing between modern humans and Neanderthals," said Liming Li, who worked in Akey’s lab.

For most of history, modern humans and Neanderthals interacted. Humans split from the Neanderthal family tree about 600,000 years ago and developed our modern features about 250,000 years ago. From then until Neanderthals disappeared 30,000 years ago, they regularly met and mixed with modern humans.

Illustration by

Matilda Luk, Office of Communications

Mapping Genetic Interactions

Using genomes from 2,000 living humans, three Neanderthals, and one Denisovan, Akey’s team mapped genetic exchanges over the past 250,000 years with a tool called IBDmix. This tool uses machine learning to decode genomes, revealing more detailed interactions than previous methods.

Their findings showed waves of contact about 200-250,000 years ago, another wave 100-120,000 years ago, and the largest wave about 50-60,000 years ago. This contrasts with the earlier belief that humans stayed in Africa for 200,000 years before spreading out.

"This shows humans were migrating out of Africa and back much earlier and more often than we thought," Akey said. This frequent movement led to many interactions with Neanderthals and Denisovans.

A New Look at Neanderthal Extinction

The study also revealed that Neanderthals had a smaller population than previously believed. Traditional genetic modeling used gene diversity as a proxy for population size. However, using IBDmix, Akey’s team showed that much of the genetic diversity in Neanderthals came from modern humans.

As a result, the estimated population of Neanderthals was reduced from 3,400 to about 2,400 breeding individuals.

Illustration by Michael Francis Reagan

How Neanderthals Disappeared

These findings suggest that Neanderthals didn't go extinct but were absorbed into human populations. Fred Smith first proposed this "assimilation model" in 1989. Akey supports this idea, saying, "Neanderthals were slowly shrinking until they merged with human communities."

"Modern humans gradually overwhelmed Neanderthals and incorporated them into our populations," Akey explained.

The research, titled “Recurrent gene flow between Neanderthals and modern humans over the past 200,000 years,” was published in the journal Science on July 13. The study was supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant R01GM110068 to JMA).

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Read the full research here: “Recurrent gene flow between Neanderthals and modern humans over the past 200,000 years,” by Liming Li, Troy J. Comi, Rob F. Bierma, and Joshua M. Akey, appears in the July 13 issue of the journal Science (DOI: 10.1126/science.adi1768). This research was supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant R01GM110068 to JMA).

New Magnetostratigraphic Dating of Earliest Hominin Sites in Europe

Background of Evolving European Chronologies and Present Debate

The study of early human migration into Europe has seen significant advancements over the past four decades. Initial findings from the 1980s placed the earliest human presence in Europe at approximately 0.7 million years ago (Ma). However, more recent discoveries have extended this timeline back to as early as 1.8 Ma in regions such as the southern Caucasus and 1.7-2.1 Ma in China. In Europe, precise dating of these early sites has been challenging due to the absence of volcanic materials for radiometric dating, limited magnetostratigraphic studies, and other constraints. This has led to a prolonged debate about the actual timeline of the first human arrival in Europe.

The Orce Sites

The Orce region in southeastern Spain has been a focal point for studying early human presence. Located in the Baza Basin, this area is rich in Early Pleistocene sedimentary strata and vertebrate fossils. Initial excavations in the 1980s at Venta Micena uncovered what was believed to be a human skull fragment, sparking controversy over its classification. Subsequent findings, including additional human bones and stone tools, further supported the presence of early humans in this region.

Methods

Geological Mapping of the Orce Region

A comprehensive geological map of the Orce area was developed, detailing the distribution of lithostratigraphic units and paleontological sites. This map is essential for establishing a chronostratigraphic framework for the region.

Lithostratigraphic Correlations

Stratigraphic sections were measured at various paleontological sites within the Orce region. These sections were correlated using key marker beds, polarity boundaries, and other stratigraphic criteria. This correlation helps in understanding the vertical and lateral distribution of different lithostratigraphic units.

Paleomagnetic Methods

A detailed paleomagnetic study was conducted on the Orce sedimentary sequences. This involved collecting samples from various stratigraphic levels and analyzing their magnetic properties to identify different magnetic polarity zones. This analysis helps in dating the sedimentary sequences by correlating them with known geomagnetic polarity timescales.

Micropaleontology

Rodent paleontological collections from the Orce sites were studied and compared with other Early Pleistocene localities in Europe. The measurements and comparisons of rodent molars provide additional biostratigraphic data to refine the chronology of the Orce sites.

Results

Geological Mapping and Stratigraphy

The new geological map for the Orce region provides greater accuracy in correlating stratigraphic sections. The map distinguishes between different lithostratigraphic units, which have been associated with specific faunal assemblages and geological features.

Magnetostratigraphy

The paleomagnetic analysis identified five magnetic zones within 80 meters of sedimentary strata, placing all paleontological and archaeological sites in the Vélez Valley between two normal zones. This sequence includes a normal zone correlated with the Olduvai subchron (1.93-1.77 Ma) and another with the Jaramillo subchron (1.071-0.991 Ma). The presence of these magnetic zones helps refine the age of the hominin sites within the Orce region.

Biostratigraphy

The paleontological data from the Orce sites, particularly the rodent assemblages, provide important chronological information. The presence of different species of rodents at various stratigraphic levels helps establish a more detailed timeline for the Early Pleistocene faunal succession in the region.

Bayesian Age Model

A Bayesian age-stratigraphic model was implemented to estimate the ages of the archaeological sites. This model, which considers all available chronostratigraphic data, indicates that the hominin sites of Venta Micena, Barranco León-5, and Fuente Nueva-3 were occupied between 1.32 and 1.23 Ma.

Discussion

Implications for the Oldest European Hominin Record

The findings from the Orce region provide the oldest and most accurately dated evidence of early human presence in Europe, suggesting that hominins arrived in southern Europe around 1.3 Ma. This arrival predates the known occupation of northern European sites and indicates a significant migration event from Africa to Europe through the Strait of Gibraltar.

Asia Occupied Before Europe?

The study suggests that the early human migration into Europe occurred after their settlement in Asia. The geographical barriers, such as the Mediterranean and Black Seas, as well as the climatic conditions in northern Europe, likely delayed the westward expansion of early humans into Europe.

Conclusion

The Orce region presents a unique and significant record of early human occupation in Europe, dating back to approximately 1.3 Ma. The integration of geological mapping, paleomagnetic analysis, and biostratigraphic data provides a robust framework for understanding the timing and sequence of early human migration into Europe. This study highlights the importance of the Orce sites in the broader context of human evolutionary history.

Read the whole research here: Magnetostratigraphic dating of earliest hominin sites in Europe

World's Oldest Cave Art Unveiled: A Glimpse into Early Human Creativity

A groundbreaking discovery on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi has unveiled the oldest known figurative cave art, dating back at least 51,200 years. This remarkable find, made by a collaborative team of Australian and Indonesian researchers, features a depiction of a wild pig accompanied by three human-like figures, predating the previous record-holder by over 5,000 years.

Unveiling Ancient Creativity

Professor Maxime Aubert from Griffith University in Australia emphasized the significance of this discovery in altering our understanding of human evolution. Speaking to BBC News, he highlighted that this ancient painting offers a profound glimpse into early human abstract thinking and storytelling capabilities. “The painting tells a complex story. It is the oldest piece of evidence we have for storytelling. It shows that humans at the time had the capacity to think in abstract terms,” he remarked.

The Detailed Depiction

Located in the limestone cave of Leang Karampuang in South Sulawesi's Maros-Pangkep region, the artwork portrays a pig standing with its mouth partially open and three human-like figures around it. One figure appears to extend both arms while holding a rod. Another stands directly in front of the pig, with its head close to the animal's snout, seemingly holding a stick that might touch the pig’s throat. The third figure is depicted upside-down, legs splayed, with a hand reaching towards the pig's head.

a, Photostitched panorama of the rock art panel (using photographs enhanced using DStretch_Ire). Ther, therianthrope. b, Tracing of the dated rock art panel showing the results of LA-U-series dating. c, Transect view of the rock art sample BSP4.5 after removal from the artwork, highlighting the paint layer and the three integration zones (ROIs) and associated age calculations. d, LA-MC-ICP-MS imaging of the BSP4.5 232Th/238U isotopic activity ratio.

The Research Team and Significance

Led by Adhi Agus Oktaviana, an Indonesian rock art specialist from the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) in Jakarta, the team underscores the role of narrative storytelling in early human culture. Oktaviana noted, “Humans have probably been telling stories for much longer than 51,200 years, but as words do not fossilize, we can only go by indirect proxies like depictions of scenes in art, and the Sulawesi art is now the oldest such evidence by far that is known to archaeology.”

Evolution of Artistic Expression

While geometric patterns found in South Africa’s Blombos Caves dating back 75,000 to 100,000 years represent early human drawing, they do not constitute representational art. The newly discovered painting in Sulawesi, however, marks a significant evolutionary step, showcasing abstract representation of the surrounding world and indicating advanced cognitive processes.

Exploring the Origins of Abstract Thought

Dr. Henry Gee, senior editor at the journal Nature, where the findings were published, speculated on what might have spurred this cognitive awakening in humans around 50,000 years ago. “Something seems to have happened around 50,000 years ago, shortly after which all other species of humans, such as Neanderthals and the so-called Hobbit, died out,” he said. He suggested that there might be even earlier examples of representational art yet to be discovered.

Implications for Archaeology

This discovery challenges the previously Eurocentric view that abstract thought and art originated in Western Europe, a perspective largely based on ancient cave paintings found in Spain and Southern France. In recent years, however, findings in Sulawesi, including colored hand outlines from 2014 and a 40,000-year-old animal painting in Borneo from 2018, have highlighted Southeast Asia's pivotal role in early human artistic development.

Professor Chris Stringer of the Natural History Museum in London commented on the broader implications, suggesting that more ancient representational art might be found in Africa, where modern humans first evolved. “This find reinforces the idea that representational art was first produced in Africa before 50,000 years ago, and the concept spread as our species spread,” he said.

Advances in Dating Techniques

The precise dating of the Sulawesi cave art was facilitated by a novel method involving laser-cutting minute samples from the artwork. This technique allows for more detailed and accurate analysis, potentially leading to the re-dating of other cave art sites worldwide and further pushing back the timeline of human artistic expression.

A New Perspective on Human History

Adam Brumm from Griffith University highlighted the significance of these findings in understanding early human storytelling. “It is noteworthy that the oldest cave art we have found in Sulawesi thus far consists of recognizable scenes: that is, paintings that depict humans and animals interacting in such a way that we can infer the artist intended to communicate a narrative of some kind—a story,” he explained.

This discovery not only reshapes our understanding of early human creativity but also underscores the importance of narrative in the development of human culture, offering a deeper appreciation of our species’ cognitive and artistic evolution.

New Study Sheds Light on Female Lineages and Changing Kinship Patterns in Neolithic Çatalhöyük

A new study of Çatalhöyük, a prominent Neolithic settlement in Central Anatolia, sheds light on the intricate social structures, mobility patterns, and gender roles that characterized early farming societies. Occupied continuously from 7100 to 5950 BCE, Çatalhöyük is renowned for its elaborate symbolic culture, including vivid wall paintings and diverse female figurines. This research delves into the genetic, social, and cultural aspects of the Çatalhöyük community, providing a comprehensive understanding of its kinship patterns and evolving social dynamics over a millennium.

Researchers have long debated the existence of a "Mother Goddess" cult in early food-producing societies, inspired by the dominant female figurines found at various Pottery Neolithic sites across Anatolia and the Aegean. These figurines were initially interpreted as deities symbolizing fertility or as representatives of matriarchal organization. However, subsequent material culture and bioarchaeological studies have not conclusively supported the notion of dominant female roles in these societies. Genetic studies have emerged as a novel method to investigate social organization and mobility patterns in prehistoric communities, although most previous research has focused on Neolithic Europe.

In this study, a comprehensive genetic analysis was conducted using paleogenomic data from 131 individuals buried in the East and West Mounds of Çatalhöyük. These genomes were compared to those from other contemporaneous Anatolian sites to understand the genetic profile of the Çatalhöyük community and its changes over time. Additionally, the study analyzed burial practices and kinship patterns by examining the genetic relationships among individuals buried within the same buildings.

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Read also: The Rooftop Entryways Of Çatalhöyük And The Pueblo Indians: Architectural Significance And Archaeological Insights

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One of the central questions addressed by this research pertains to the mobility dynamics that shaped the Çatalhöyük community through the 7th millennium BCE. The genetic profile of Çatalhöyük remained relatively stable over its occupation, similar to other Pottery Neolithic sites in West and Central Anatolia. There were subtle temporal shifts in the gene pool, suggesting gene flow from neighboring regions, particularly from Central and West Anatolia. The study found no consistent affinity to populations from distant regions, such as the Levant, Zagros, or the Balkans. However, there was evidence of gene flow from genetically similar groups within the region, indicating that Çatalhöyük was not an insular community but received non-negligible levels of incomers from proximate communities.

The analysis of kinship patterns revealed that genetic kin ties were more frequently found within buildings and among neighbors during the Early period. However, this pattern weakened over time. Throughout the site's occupation, genetic connections within buildings were more often maternal than paternal. The study also identified differential funerary treatment of female subadults compared to males, with a higher frequency of grave goods associated with females. This finding suggests that key female roles persisted over time in the large Neolithic community of Çatalhöyük.

The research further explored the levels of inbreeding within the community, revealing relatively low levels of consanguinity. This suggests active inbreeding avoidance, possibly through exogamous reproductive practices or by choosing reproductive partners from outside the community. The genetic evidence indicated no practice of patrilocality in Çatalhöyük, in contrast to many Neolithic European societies, where patrilocal traditions were common.

Excavations at the Neolithic settlement of Çatalhöyük, Turkey. Original image by Omar Hoftun.

One of the most intriguing findings of the study was the temporal change in burial practices. In the Early period, co-buried pairs within buildings were frequently close genetic kin, a pattern similar to that observed in Pre-Pottery Neolithic Anatolian settlements. However, in the Middle and Late periods, there was a significant increase in the co-burial of genetically unrelated individuals. This shift suggests changing social dynamics, possibly involving fostering or other social mechanisms that created shared environments for genetically unrelated individuals.

The research also highlighted a specific burial practice that appeared to influence body decomposition and DNA preservation. The study found that subadult burials, particularly those of female children and adolescents, had higher frequencies of grave goods compared to their male counterparts. This differentiated treatment upon death could be related to the significant role of female lineages in maintaining social continuity across generations.

The new genetic evidence from Çatalhöyük provides novel insights into the funerary practices and social organization of this major Neolithic community. It challenges previous assumptions about the dominance of patrilocality in early farming societies and highlights the unique aspects of Çatalhöyük's social structure. The findings suggest that mobility in Neolithic Anatolia might have been bilateral or matrilocal, potentially a continuation of earlier forager traditions in the region. The study also proposes that the observed changes in burial practices and kinship patterns over time might reflect the evolving social dynamics and economic independence of households within Çatalhöyük.

In conclusion, this research offers a detailed exploration of the genetic and social landscape of Neolithic Çatalhöyük. It emphasizes the persistence of maternal genetic connections and the evolving kinship practices that shaped this early farming community. The study contributes significantly to our understanding of social evolution in prehistoric societies and the complex interplay between gender, kinship, and social organization in one of the most well-documented Neolithic settlements in the world.

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For a detailed examination of the study, please access the full document: Female Lineages and Changing Kinship Patterns in Neolithic Çatalhöyük.

Archaeological Breakthrough: The Discovery of Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Purple-Dye Production at Cape Kolonna, Aegina

A groundbreaking study published in PLOS ONE on June 12, 2024, sheds new light on the intricate processes of purple-dye production during the Late Bronze Age. This study by Lydia Berger and colleagues provides in-depth archaeological, analytical, and procedural insights into the manufacture of this priceless dye at Cape Kolonna, Aegina.

Introduction

The island of Aegina, located in the Saronic Gulf, has long been recognized for its significant cultural and economic contributions throughout history. The recent excavations in the Eastern Suburb of Bronze Age Aegina Kolonna have unveiled remarkable evidence of purple-dye production, dating back to the Early Mycenaean period (16th century BC). This study goes into great detail about the archaeological finds, such as mollusk shells, ceramic sherds with pigment residues, and functional buildings. Together, these things give us a full picture of the dye-making methods used during this time.

Orthophoto of Aegina Kolonna with Area K10 in the Bronze Age Outer Suburb marked in red.

Archaeological Context

The research focused on a small area in the Eastern Suburb, designated as Area K10. Excavations revealed two superimposed Early Mycenaean buildings, destroyed and buried one above the other. Among the debris, researchers found clear evidence of a domestic context intertwined with various craft activities, prominently including the production of purple dye.

Evidence of Dye Production

The standout findings from Area K10 include ceramic fragments with purple pigment residues, high concentrations of mollusk shells, and specialized tools. Chemical analysis using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) identified the banded dye-murex (Hexaplex trunculus) as the primary source of the dye. This species was preferred for its high content of monobromoindigotin (MBI) and the desired purple shade it produced. Additionally, the presence of crushing tools and a dedicated waste pit underscores the organized and possibly professional nature of dye production at this site.

Selection of crushed purple snail shells from the pit in Area K10.

Technological and Ritual Aspects

The study highlights not only the technical aspects but also the potential ritual significance of purple-dye production. The skeletal remains of heavily burned juvenile animals found within the workshop area suggest ritualistic practices possibly aimed at safeguarding or sanctifying the dye production process. This aligns with the broader understanding of Mycenaean society, where complex rituals were often intertwined with significant economic activities.

Purple pigment sample KOL-01 (from fragment SE16/15-K10-85-03). Photo by L. Berger.

Conclusion

This research marks a significant advancement in our understanding of Late Bronze Age technologies and economic practices. A thorough study of the archaeological and bioarchaeological evidence from Cape Kolonna reveals important information about how purple dye was made and what it meant to people in ancient Aegina. The findings not only enrich our knowledge of Mycenaean craft and trade but also open new avenues for exploring the socio-economic dynamics of ancient Mediterranean societies.

For further details, refer to the full study in PLOS ONE More than just a color: Archaeological, analytical, and procedural aspects of Late Bronze Age purple-dye production at Cape Kolonna, Aegina, page 1.

Divergence Patterns in Indo-European Language Family: Trees, Waves, and Network Analysis

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Based on the study entitled Splits or waves? Trees or webs? How divergence measures and network analysis can unravel language histories

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Same Languages, Different Visions

In exploring the divergence of languages within a family, linguists traditionally use models such as 'splits' and 'waves.' The 'splits' model is akin to a branching tree, where languages diverge distinctly from a common ancestor, while the 'wave' model represents a more interconnected dialect continuum. This study illustrates the difference between these models using the Indo-European language family. Figures 1 and 2 depict trees with clear binary splits, while Figures 3 and 4 present a NeighborNet analysis showing a web of cross-cutting relationships. These contrasting representations highlight the complexity of language divergence and reflect different historical processes.

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The tree models suggest distinct separations between speaker populations, often through migrations. Conversely, the wave model indicates expansions over continuous territories where dialects overlap and influence each other. The study emphasizes that real-world language histories often involve both processes, requiring models that can integrate tree-like and web-like signals. Phylogenetic network methods, such as those discussed in this paper, offer a means to capture this complexity. They combine elements of both models, providing a more accurate reflection of the historical divergence of languages.

Language Divergence and the Real World: Two Models, One Reality

The splits and wave models reflect two different real-world processes. The split model corresponds to populations dividing and migrating away from each other, leading to distinct language branches. The wave model represents populations expanding over contiguous territories, maintaining local contact and resulting in overlapping dialects. Understanding these processes is crucial for interpreting the historical relationships between languages within a family. Real-world factors such as demographic movements, socio-political changes, and cultural interactions are the primary drivers of language divergence.

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This Is The Most Sophisticated Model For Indo-European Language Relationships

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The study stresses that language divergence patterns are direct reflections of these historical processes. Linguistic changes occur naturally, but the extent to which these changes spread or remain isolated depends on the real-world context. For example, vast expansions, such as those driven by the Roman Empire, created the Romance language family, while isolated groups like the Albanians and Armenians developed independently. Borrowing and contact between languages further complicate the divergence patterns, as seen in scenarios where initial splits are followed by later interactions. This complexity necessitates models that can distinguish between splits and waves and accurately represent the intertwined nature of language histories.

Network Methods: Best of Both Worlds?

Network methods, particularly the Network algorithm and NeighborNet, are effective in capturing both split-like and wave-like signals within language divergence data. Developed initially for biological sciences, these methods have been adapted for linguistic studies. Network takes individual state data, focusing on specific linguistic changes, while NeighborNet uses overall measures of distance between languages. Both methods can represent the mixed nature of language divergence, combining elements of tree-like branching and web-like continua.

Figure 5.

Unrooted network of 19 Germanic language samples. (Reproduced with permission from Forster et al. 2006, p. 134.)

The Network algorithm, for example, has been applied to limited datasets of Celtic and Germanic languages, demonstrating its potential to represent complex relationships. NeighborNet, on the other hand, has been used with various linguistic datasets, including phonetic divergence measures for Germanic languages. These network methods reveal patterns that align well with known historical contexts, such as the clear splits between English and continental Germanic varieties and the web-like patterns within regional dialects. Despite some limitations, such as the placement of intermediate dialects, network methods provide a nuanced view of language divergence that tree-only models cannot achieve.

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Measuring Network Versus Tree Signals

Both Network and NeighborNet can effectively visualize the strengths of tree-like and web-like signals within language divergence data. Network identifies individual linguistic changes within the network diagram, providing a detailed view of specific innovations and retentions. NeighborNet, while using distance measures, captures the overall balance between branching and continuum patterns, reflecting the mixed nature of real-world language histories. These methods allow researchers to assess the degree of tree-ness or net-ness in a dataset, providing insights into the historical processes that shaped language divergence.

For example, NeighborNet analyses of Germanic languages show clear splits corresponding to historical separations, such as the isolation of English varieties, while also depicting the continuum of dialects across continental West Germanic. These patterns align with known historical expansions and migrations, demonstrating the utility of network methods in capturing the complexity of language divergence. By integrating tree-like and web-like signals, network methods offer a more comprehensive representation of language histories, accommodating the multifaceted nature of linguistic evolution.

State Versus Distance Data: Theory and Practice

The study compares state data, which focus on specific linguistic changes, and distance data, which measure overall divergence between languages. Network methods like the Network algorithm use state data to identify individual changes, while NeighborNet employs distance measures to represent the overall divergence pattern. Both approaches have their strengths and limitations. State data provide detailed insights into specific innovations, but distance measures can capture the broader divergence pattern, reflecting the combined impact of all linguistic changes.

NeighborNet analyses of Germanic languages, for example, reveal patterns that correspond well to known historical contexts, such as the separation of English varieties and the continuum within continental West Germanic. These results demonstrate that distance measures can effectively represent language divergence, even without specifying ancestral states. The study proposes that the randomness of parallel innovations and shared retentions ensures that their effects balance out, leaving the non-random patterns of shared innovations to dominate the overall divergence pattern. This principle explains why distance measures can reflect language histories accurately, supporting the use of network methods in linguistic research.

Lessons for Historical Linguistic Methodology

The study emphasizes the need for balanced approaches that integrate both state and distance data, as well as tree-only and network methods, to uncover the full complexity of language histories. While tree models are useful for specific purposes, such as dating language divergence, network methods provide a more comprehensive representation of the mixed nature of linguistic evolution. By capturing both split-like and wave-like signals, network methods offer valuable insights into the historical processes that shaped language divergence.

The application of these methods to Germanic languages demonstrates their effectiveness in reflecting known historical contexts, suggesting their utility for probing the early divergence history of other language families, such as Indo-European. The study highlights the importance of considering real-world factors, such as demographic movements and socio-political changes, in interpreting language divergence patterns. By integrating these factors, network methods can provide a more accurate and nuanced view of language histories, enhancing our understanding of linguistic evolution and prehistory.

Issues with the Steppe Hypothesis: An Archaeological Perspective on Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Southern Scandinavia

The steppe hypothesis, which posits that the spread of Indo-European languages and associated cultural elements originated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, has significantly influenced our understanding of prehistoric Europe. However, archaeological evidence from southern Scandinavia presents challenges to this hypothesis, particularly concerning the timeline and modes of cultural transmission. This article explores these issues published by Iversen, R., in his new research titled “Indo-European Interfaces: Integrating Linguistics, Mythology, and Archaeology.” By examining the iconography, mythology, and language in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age southern Scandinavia, Iversen highlights the complexity of cultural interactions and the limitations of the steppe hypothesis as a singular explanatory model.

Neolithic Iconography and Megalithic Art

In southern Scandinavia, the Neolithic period was marked by aniconic geometric motifs rather than figurative representations. These motifs, found on large stones and megalithic tombs, are part of a broader tradition of megalithic art spread across western Europe. This artistic expression remained consistent throughout the Neolithic period, emphasizing abstract patterns over human forms.

Statue Menhirs and Anthropomorphic Representations

Contrastingly, western Europe and regions further east, including the North Pontic area and the Altai Mountains, saw the emergence of elaborate anthropomorphic standing stones or statue menhirs during the late 4th and early 3rd millennia BC. These statue menhirs depicted human figures with detailed features, suggesting new social structures, elite groups, and possibly Indo-European mythologies. Despite the widespread presence of Corded Ware/Yamnaya influences in southern Scandinavia around 2800 BC, this region did not adopt similar anthropomorphic representations until the Early Bronze Age, circa the 2nd millennium BC.

Corded Ware Culture and Early Indo-European Influences

The Corded Ware culture, which emerged in southern Scandinavia during the early 3rd millennium BC, is often associated with the spread of Indo-European languages. This culture introduced significant changes in material culture, such as single graves, cord-decorated pottery, and stone battle-axes. However, these changes did not immediately include the figurative iconography or mythological elements typical of early Indo-European societies.

Second Wave of Indo-Europeanization

The Early Bronze Age in southern Scandinavia, beginning around 1700 BC, saw a marked shift in iconography with the introduction of human representations and motifs linked to Indo-European mythology. This period is characterized by a second wave of steppe innovations, including the use of domesticated horses, chariots, and wool production. These elements suggest a renewed phase of Indo-European influences distinct from the initial Corded Ware introduction.

Conclusion

The archaeological evidence from southern Scandinavia indicates that the Indo-Europeanization of this region was not a singular event but involved at least two major phases of steppe influence. The first phase, associated with the Corded Ware culture, brought about changes in material culture and burial practices but did not include the full suite of Indo-European cultural elements. The second phase, during the Early Bronze Age, introduced significant iconographic and mythological changes, aligning more closely with Indo-European traditions. This dual-phase model challenges the steppe hypothesis as a sole explanatory framework, highlighting the complex and multi-faceted nature of cultural transmission in prehistoric Europe.

Uncovering the Ancient Roots of the Vine with Stephen Batiuk: History, Myth, and Archaeology

Stephen Batiuk's lecture, "Exploring the Roots of the Vine: The History and Archaeology of the Earliest Wines," delves into the deep historical and cultural roots of wine. Batiuk's comprehensive exploration highlights wine's profound influence on ancient civilizations, its enduring legacy, and the significant archaeological discoveries that have traced its origins back to prehistoric times. This article unpacks the key themes and insights from Batiuk's enlightening presentation.

The Cultural Significance of Wine Throughout History

Wine is more than just a beverage; it is a symbol deeply ingrained in human culture and history. Stephen Batiuk began his lecture by emphasizing wine's critical role in shaping both sacred and profane aspects of civilizations. From religious rituals to luxurious feasts, wine has been a constant presence. Its universal appeal across diverse cultures, including France, Italy, Spain, and beyond, underscores its importance in human history.

Wine's association with luxury and celebration is evident in how it is portrayed in media and literature. In ancient societies, wine was revered not just for its intoxicating effects but also for its social and religious significance. It was often used in religious ceremonies, symbolizing blood in Christian rituals, and celebrated in festivals like Dionysia in ancient Greece. This historical context shows how deeply wine is woven into the fabric of human civilization.

The continuity of wine's cultural significance from ancient times to the present day highlights its lasting impact. Modern societies continue to celebrate wine in various ways, from wine tastings and vineyard tours to its prominent role in culinary arts. Understanding this continuity helps appreciate wine's historical journey and its role in shaping cultural identities over millennia.

Mythological Accounts and Ancient Narratives of Wine

Batiuk's lecture also explored the mythological origins of wine, providing insights into ancient narratives that hint at its early discovery. One notable myth is the story of Noah from the Bible, who planted a vineyard and became drunk after the flood, placing the origins of wine in the region of Mount Ararat in eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus. This tale, among others, offers a fascinating glimpse into how ancient cultures perceived the origins of wine.

In Iranian mythology, the discovery of wine is credited to King Jamshid. According to the legend, Jamshid loved grapes and stored them in his palace. When fermentation occurred naturally, a despondent harem girl mistakenly consumed the "poisonous" liquid, only to discover its intoxicating effects, thus leading to the recognition of wine. These stories, while not historical records, provide valuable cultural context for the early appreciation and mythical understanding of wine.

These mythological accounts are more than just tales; they reflect the importance of wine in early human societies. They show that the discovery and consumption of wine were significant enough to be immortalized in myths, indicating its valued place in ancient cultures. These narratives also point to the geographic regions where wine was first cultivated, aligning with archaeological findings that place the origins of wine in the Caucasus and surrounding areas.

The Paleolithic Hypothesis and the Early Evidence of Wine

Batiuk introduced the Paleolithic hypothesis, which suggests that the fermentation of grapes likely occurred by accident within early hunter-gatherer societies. Championed by Patrick McGovern, this hypothesis posits that early humans might have observed animals becoming intoxicated after eating fermented fruits and decided to experiment with these naturally occurring processes. This serendipitous discovery marks the beginning of humanity's relationship with wine.

Archaeological evidence supports the Paleolithic hypothesis, providing concrete examples of early wine production. Sites such as Godin Tepe in Iran have yielded residues of tartaric acid and terebinth resin in pottery, dating back to the 4th millennium BCE. These findings indicate that early humans were not only consuming fermented grape juice but also had begun to understand and replicate the fermentation process.

Further supporting evidence comes from the site of Shulaveri Gora in Georgia, where carbonized grape seeds and chemical residues on pottery suggest wine production dating back to around 5800 BCE. These discoveries are pivotal as they push the timeline of wine production back to the Neolithic era, demonstrating that early humans had developed sophisticated methods for cultivating grapes and producing wine. This evidence collectively underscores the ancient origins and enduring importance of wine in human history.

Georgian Wine Culture and the Traditional Qvevri Method

Georgia, often referred to as the cradle of wine, boasts a unique and ancient wine-making tradition known as the Qvevri method. Stephen Batiuk's lecture highlighted this traditional technique, which involves fermenting wine in large clay vessels buried underground. This method, used for thousands of years, allows for natural temperature regulation and prolonged contact with grape skins, resulting in wines with distinctive body and flavor.

The Qvevri method is deeply rooted in Georgian culture and has been integral to the region's identity for millennia. These clay vessels, often large enough to hold a small car, are buried up to their necks, creating a natural convection process that keeps the wine in circulation. This traditional technique not only preserves the quality of the wine but also reflects the ingenuity and cultural heritage of Georgian wine-making.

Modern archaeological excavations in Georgia have revealed the long history of the Qvevri method. Sites like Shulaveri Gora and Gadachrili Gora have provided evidence of wine production dating back to the Neolithic period, with ancient Qvevri vessels still in use. This continuity of tradition underscores the deep historical roots of Georgian wine culture and its influence on wine production practices around the world.

The Core-Periphery Model and the Spread of Wine

The spread of wine culture from the Caucasus to other regions was facilitated by the development of trade networks and migration patterns. Batiuk explored the role of the Kura-Araxes culture in disseminating wine-making techniques and grape varieties across the Near East. This culture, known for its distinctive ceramics and advanced agricultural practices, played a crucial role in the spread of viticulture.

The Kura-Araxes culture, which flourished around 4000–2200 BCE, is characterized by its distinctive red and black pottery and its ability to adapt to various environmental settings. As these people migrated, they brought their agricultural practices, including viticulture, to new regions. This migration facilitated the spread of grape cultivation and wine production techniques, influencing the agricultural landscapes of the Near East.

Archaeological evidence supports the significant impact of the Kura-Araxes culture on wine production. Excavations in sites such as Aratashen and Aknashen in Armenia have uncovered remnants of early vineyards and wine-making facilities. These findings demonstrate that the Kura-Araxes people not only spread grape cultivation but also established a lasting tradition of wine production that would influence subsequent civilizations across the region.

Wine in Ancient Mesopotamia: From Beer to Wine

Wine's presence in ancient Mesopotamia marks a significant shift from a predominantly beer-drinking culture to one that embraced the sophisticated production and consumption of wine. Batiuk's lecture examined this transformation, particularly focusing on the city-state of Ebla, where textual records indicate a growing appreciation and consumption of wine.

The city-state of Ebla, located in modern-day Syria, played a pivotal role in the dissemination of wine culture in ancient Mesopotamia. Textual records from Ebla's archives reveal that wine was a highly valued commodity, often used in royal and religious ceremonies. These records also indicate that wine production became increasingly centralized, with the palace exerting control over vineyards and wine distribution.

This centralization of wine production in Ebla had far-reaching effects. As wine became more accessible to different social classes, it gradually supplanted beer in many ceremonial and social contexts. The spread of wine culture from Ebla to other parts of Mesopotamia and beyond highlights the dynamic interplay between agricultural innovation, trade, and cultural exchange in the ancient world.

The Phoenicians and Wine's Mediterranean Journey

By the Iron Age, the Phoenicians emerged as major wine producers and traders, significantly influencing the spread of wine culture across the Mediterranean. Stephen Batiuk highlighted the Phoenicians' role in establishing vineyards and wine production centers in regions such as Sicily, Sardinia, North Africa, and Spain, linking these areas to the ancient traditions of the Caucasus.

The Phoenicians, renowned for their seafaring and trading prowess, established a network of trade routes that facilitated the exchange of goods, including wine. Their ships, laden with amphorae filled with wine, traveled across the Mediterranean, introducing viticulture to new regions. This widespread distribution of wine and grapevines played a crucial role in the development of local wine industries in these areas.

Genetic studies have revealed that many modern grape varieties in Spain, Portugal, and Italy bear direct genetic links to ancient grape varieties from the Caucasus and Anatolia. This genetic continuity underscores the lasting impact of the Phoenicians' trade and agricultural practices. The Phoenicians' contribution to the spread of wine culture laid the foundation for the rich and diverse wine traditions that continue to thrive in the Mediterranean today.

Conclusion: Wine's Enduring Legacy

Stephen Batiuk's lecture provided a comprehensive overview of wine's ancient origins and its profound impact on human history. Through mythological narratives, archaeological discoveries, and historical records, Batiuk traced the journey of wine from its Neolithic roots in the Caucasus to its spread across ancient civilizations. Wine's enduring legacy is a testament to its integral role in shaping cultural identities, social practices, and economic exchanges throughout history.

The evidence presented highlights the deep historical roots of wine production and its significant cultural and economic influence. From the mythological tales of Noah and King Jamshid to the archaeological discoveries in Georgia and the trade networks of the Phoenicians, wine's journey is a fascinating narrative of human innovation and cultural exchange. Understanding this history enriches our appreciation of wine and its place in our cultural heritage, offering a glimpse into the ancient world and the enduring traditions that continue to shape our present.

Rediscovered Mycenaean Armor Proves Battle-Ready in Modern Marine Trials

Marines Validate Mycenaean Armor: An 11-Hour Battle Test Proves Durability!

In a remarkable fusion of archaeology and modern military practice, a recent study has brought ancient Mycenaean armor into the spotlight, challenging long-held perceptions of Bronze Age warfare. Historically, this armor was considered largely ceremonial, but contemporary testing has revealed its practical efficacy in real combat situations.

The Dendra Panoply

Central to this discovery is the Dendra armor, a full bronze panoply dating back to 1,500 BCE. It was found in the Dendra cemetery near Midea in the Argolid, Greece. This armor, characterized by its impressive coverage and weight, was previously thought to be more symbolic than functional due to its extensive protection and presumed encumbrance.

Top: Geomorphology of the area surrounding Troy in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age (labels indicate the locations of the two army encampments and the geographic features of the area).

Hellenic Armors by Katsikis Dimitrios

Modern Testing by Hellenic Marines

To test the practicality of this ancient armor, researchers collaborated with modern Hellenic Marines. They recreated the Dendra panoply using historically accurate methods and materials, then subjected it to rigorous testing. The most notable experiment involved an 11-hour battle simulation inspired by the legendary Trojan War.

During this simulation, marines donned armor and engaged in a variety of combat scenarios, replicating the conditions and challenges of ancient warfare. Surprisingly, the armor provided significant protection and allowed for considerable mobility. The results indicated that, contrary to previous assumptions, Mycenaean warriors could effectively fight for extended periods while wearing heavy bronze gear.

Emeritus Professor and inspirer of the study, Dr. Giannis Koutentakis, emphasized to the Athenian-Macedonian News Agency (AMNA) that "to address the aforementioned question, it required the innovative collaboration of two seemingly unrelated sciences, archaeology and sports physiology, to precisely evaluate the loads imposed by the armor on the bodies and biological functions of the volunteers. The results overturn the previous notion that this armor was merely ceremonial, primarily due to its supposedly cumbersome design, shedding light on a significant aspect of the Bronze Age in Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate the potential of interdisciplinary collaborations. I hope the new specialty created, 'archaeophysiology,' will be a vehicle for future studies."

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Hittite Bowl Featuring Mycenaean Warrior?: Tracing The Mycenaean Footprints In Anatolia

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Insights into Mycenaean Warfare

The findings from these tests offer profound insights into Mycenaean military capabilities. The successful use of such armor suggests that Mycenaean soldiers were highly skilled and well-prepared for intense combat situations. Additionally, the combination of heavy armor and the use of chariots likely gave the Mycenaeans a strategic advantage on the battlefield.

The implications extend to our understanding of Mycenaean society and its martial culture. The ability to produce and utilize such advanced armor indicates a high level of technological and metallurgical proficiency. It also underscores the importance of warfare in Mycenaean civilization, reflecting their emphasis on military prowess and strategic dominance.

"The technology developed by the Mycenaeans in crafting effective battle armor partially explains their strong presence in the eastern Mediterranean. Only a formidable military force, such as the Mycenaeans, could oppose the Hittites, who dominated from Asia Minor to Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BCE, and earn their respect, as evidenced by Hittite records. Additionally, our study's results weaken the theory that references to bronze armor in the Iliad are later additions, supporting the view that this technology existed long before the Trojan War," concludes Professor of Archaeology Dr. Ken Wardle.

Bronze Age Mycenaean Armors at Kotsanas Museum of Ancient Greek Technology
Photo: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Rewriting Bronze Age History

These revelations necessitate a reevaluation of Bronze Age military history. The effectiveness of Mycenaean armor challenges previous narratives that depicted ancient combat as relatively unsophisticated. Instead, it paints a picture of a highly organized and technologically advanced society capable of conducting prolonged and strategic warfare.

Moreover, this study exemplifies the value of interdisciplinary research, combining archaeology, history, and modern military expertise to unlock new understanding of ancient practices. The collaboration between historians and active military personnel not only validates historical artifacts but also brings to life the experiences of ancient warriors.

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A Mycenaean Type Sword In Hattusha?: Evidence Of Technological Exchange Or Military Conflicts In The Late Bronze Age?

The testing of ancient Mycenaean armor by modern marines has unveiled a new dimension of Bronze Age warfare, highlighting the sophistication and effectiveness of Mycenaean military technology. These findings enrich our understanding of ancient Greek history, illustrating the advanced capabilities of Mycenaean society and reshaping our perceptions of their martial culture. As we continue to explore and test historical artifacts, we gain deeper insights into the complexities and innovations of ancient civilizations.

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Mycenaean Echoes In El-Amarna: Aegean Warriors In The Egyptian Army Of 18th Dynasty?

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Study Finds Paleolithic People Settled in Cyprus Thousands of Years Earlier Than Previously Thought

A groundbreaking study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences has revealed that Paleolithic people settled in Cyprus thousands of years earlier than previously believed. This discovery significantly alters our understanding of early human migration patterns across continents and islands, highlighting the Mediterranean's role in prehistoric human dispersal.

Early Settlement Patterns

Led by Professor Corey Bradshaw of Flinders University, the research team, which included Dr. Theodora Moutsiou and Dr. Christian Reepmeyer, utilized a combination of archaeological data, climate estimates, and demographic modeling. Their findings suggest that the first human occupation of Cyprus occurred between 14,257 and 13,182 years ago, predating earlier estimates by several millennia. This period aligns with favorable climatic conditions that would have supported large hunter-gatherer populations​​.

Methodology and Findings

The researchers examined the ten oldest archaeological sites across Cyprus, analyzing dating evidence and environmental conditions. The study found that the initial settlers arrived during a time of increased temperature and precipitation, which would have made the island more hospitable and capable of supporting substantial human populations. This early settlement was marked by rapid population growth, with estimates suggesting that within 300 years, or roughly 11 generations, the population expanded to a median of 4,000–5,000 individuals​​.

Implications for Understanding Human Migration

This new timeline for human settlement in Cyprus implies that Paleolithic societies possessed advanced planning and maritime capabilities, as evidenced by the organized migration patterns and the use of sophisticated watercraft. The study proposes that large groups, numbering in the hundreds to thousands, arrived in Cyprus in two to three major migration events over less than a century. This suggests a high level of social organization and technological advancement among early human populations​​.

Reevaluating Mediterranean Archaeology

The findings challenge previous assumptions that Mediterranean islands were unreachable and inhospitable for early humans. Dr. Moutsiou and Dr. Reepmeyer emphasize that these results necessitate a reevaluation of early human migration theories in the region. They argue that previous gaps in the archaeological record, due to preservation biases and dating uncertainties, have led to misconceptions about early human settlement patterns. The new evidence underscores the importance of revisiting these questions with advanced technologies and methodologies​​.

Future Research Directions

Professor Bradshaw highlights the need for further research to test the validity of early settlement dates in the Mediterranean in light of new findings. This study opens up new avenues for exploring how climatic changes and environmental factors influenced human migration and settlement patterns during the Pleistocene era. It also calls for more comprehensive archaeological investigations to uncover the full extent of early human activities in the region​​.

For further information, the detailed study can be accessed through the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences: Demographic models predict end-Pleistocene arrival and rapid expansion of pre-agropastoralist humans in Cyprus​​.

This discovery not only reshapes our understanding of early human history in the Mediterranean but also highlights the dynamic and adaptable nature of Paleolithic societies in their quest for new territories and resources.