Thessaloniki’s New Revolutionary Metro-Museum: A Global First and Europe’s Most Advanced

Ancient Marvels Meet Modern Innovation in Thessaloniki’s One-of-a-Kind Metro-Museum

Thessaloniki, a city with over 2,300 years of continuous history, has just unveiled a groundbreaking metro system that is not merely a means of transportation but a journey through the layers of its storied past. Hailed as the most modern metro system in Europe and the first of its kind in the world to integrate an archaeological museum, the Thessaloniki Metro is a shining example of innovation and preservation working hand in hand.

A Metro Unlike Any Other

The Thessaloniki Metro isn’t just about cutting-edge trains and improved urban mobility; it is a window into history, with every station offering a glimpse of the city’s ancient and Byzantine heritage. During its construction, which began in 2006, excavations unearthed thousands of archaeological treasures, transforming the project into the largest archaeological dig in northern Greece.

The finds include a headless statue of Aphrodite, intricate mosaics, golden wreaths, Roman-era plumbing systems, and over 300,000 other artifacts. The crown jewel is undoubtedly the preservation of the city's Decumanus Maximus—the main thoroughfare of Roman Thessaloniki—which lies beneath the bustling Egnatia Street. This ancient road, lined with marble columns and featuring a Byzantine marketplace, is now displayed in situ at Venizelou Station, offering commuters a direct connection to the city’s past.

Venizelou Station: The World’s First Open Metro Museum

The centerpiece of the metro is Venizelou Station, a marvel of engineering and archaeological preservation. This station allows visitors to experience an open museum underground, featuring a Byzantine road complete with shops, workshops, and other urban elements preserved exactly as they were unearthed. The station’s design ensures that passengers and visitors alike can admire these ancient treasures in their original context, creating a seamless blend of ancient and modern.

Unlike other metro systems worldwide, Thessaloniki’s approach goes beyond displaying artifacts in glass cases. Here, history surrounds you—beneath your feet, beside you as you walk to the platforms, and even on the walls that frame the station.

A City Shaped by History

Thessaloniki’s unique identity has always been shaped by its geography and history. Founded in 315 BCE by King Cassander of Macedonia, the city has been a melting pot of cultures and civilizations. It thrived as a vital hub in the Roman Empire, became a bastion of Byzantine culture, and endured centuries of Ottoman rule. Its location on the Via Egnatia, a major trade and military route connecting Rome to Constantinople, cemented its role as a bridge between East and West.

This complex history is embedded in the layers of soil beneath the city. Every step of the metro’s construction was a delicate dance between modern engineering and the safeguarding of these historical treasures, a process that demanded patience, ingenuity, and collaboration between archaeologists and engineers.

Challenges and Triumphs

The project was not without controversy and challenges. Initial plans called for some artifacts to be relocated, sparking public outcry and a legal battle that reached Greece’s highest court. Ultimately, a solution was found: the metro’s design was reconfigured to preserve and display the discoveries in situ. This decision not only delayed the project but also significantly increased its budget, with archaeological work alone costing over €132 million.

Despite these hurdles, the end result is a triumph. Thessaloniki’s metro now stands as a global model for how infrastructure projects can respect and enhance cultural heritage rather than erase it.

A Journey Through Time

For residents and visitors alike, traveling on the Thessaloniki Metro is more than a commute—it is an immersive experience. From the marble-paved roads of Roman times to Byzantine crossroads and Ottoman-era artifacts, each station tells a part of the city’s story. The metro serves as both a practical urban solution and a cultural treasure trove, ensuring that Thessaloniki’s rich history is preserved for generations to come.

A Vision for the Future

As Thessaloniki steps into the future with one of the most advanced metro systems in Europe, it does so with a profound respect for its past. The city has shown the world that progress and preservation can coexist, creating a legacy that honors its ancient roots while embracing modernity. The Thessaloniki Metro isn’t just a transportation network—it’s a celebration of a city where history is never forgotten, even as it surges forward into the 21st century.

A Living Monument: The Resilient Architecture of Istanbul’s Byzantine, Ottoman, and Republican Eras

Istanbul, the city that bridges two continents, is a place where the past and present coexist in striking harmony. This photograph of a remarkable building in Istanbul, on Alaykosku Street in the Cagaloglu district, captures that enduring spirit in a single, extraordinary frame. The structure, which stands as a testament to three different historical periods—the Byzantine Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and modern-day Turkey—demonstrates the city's resilience and cultural layers.

A Tale of Three Eras: Byzantine, Ottoman, and Republican

At first glance, the building's eclectic architectural mix may seem puzzling, but it tells a compelling story of continuity. The bottom section is made of ancient Byzantine columns, likely remnants from an earlier structure. These stone columns, with their robust form and classical arches, echo the grandeur of Constantinople, the city that was once the capital of the Byzantine Empire.

As you move upward, the structure shifts into Ottoman-era stonework. This middle section showcases the Ottoman Empire’s architectural style, characterized by sturdy stone walls. The masonry reflects the craftsmanship and engineering prowess of a time when Istanbul, formerly known as Constantinople, was a vibrant center of commerce and culture under Ottoman rule.

Crowning the building are the top floors, constructed during Turkey's Republican era. These are more utilitarian, representing the practical architectural trends of the early 20th century. While the aesthetics may seem relatively modest compared to the ornate Byzantine and Ottoman sections, the upper floors symbolize the city's modern history, transitioning from an imperial past to a bustling, modern metropolis.

A Building Standing the Test of Time

Despite the visible wear and tear, the building remains firmly rooted in place, defying the ravages of time. Nature has begun to reclaim parts of the structure, with creeping vines and patches of greenery growing between the stone walls. Yet, its foundation—a fusion of three distinct architectural eras—holds strong. This resilience mirrors Istanbul itself, a city that has survived countless invasions, earthquakes, and political upheavals, yet continues to thrive.

The Symbolism of Layers

This building represents more than just the architectural evolution of a city. Each layer stands for a different chapter in Istanbul’s rich history, encapsulating the city’s journey from the ancient Roman and Byzantine periods, through the Islamic Ottoman Empire, to the secular Turkish Republic. It’s a visual metaphor for how Istanbul has absorbed and preserved its diverse cultural influences over the centuries.

Conclusion: A Microcosm of Istanbul’s History

In many ways, this structure is a microcosm of Istanbul itself—layered, complex, and enduring. Each stone, each floor, tells a story of a different era, yet together they form a cohesive whole that is still standing, just as Istanbul continues to stand as one of the world's most historically rich and culturally diverse cities.

The building may seem weathered and timeworn, but like the city it inhabits, it is very much alive, a living monument to a civilization that bridges the ancient and the modern world.

The Influence of Roman Architecture on Islamic Architectural Heritage

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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From Domes to Minarets: How Roman Architecture Shaped Islamic Design

The visual similarities between Orthodox churches and mosques often spark curiosity and intrigue, leading many to ponder the historical connections between these architectural styles. This architectural convergence is not merely a coincidence but a testament to the rich, intertwined histories of different civilizations. Byzantine architecture, with its grand domes and intricate mosaics, drew heavily from Roman and Hellenistic innovations. As Islam spread and interacted with Roman culture, Islamic architects adopted and adapted these elements, giving rise to iconic mosques that reflect a shared heritage. This article delves into the fascinating journey of architectural influence from the ancient Greeks and Romans to the Byzantine and Islamic civilizations.

Roman and Hellenistic Foundations

Byzantine architecture did not develop in isolation. Its roots can be traced back to the architectural traditions of the Roman Empire, which itself was heavily influenced by Hellenistic principles from ancient Greece. Roman architects and engineers mastered the use of arches, vaults, and domes, creating iconic structures like the Pantheon with its vast, unsupported concrete dome. The Greeks had already laid the groundwork with their emphasis on proportion, symmetry, and the use of columns in structures such as temples and public buildings.

Byzantine Synthesis and Innovation

When the Byzantine Empire emerged from the Eastern Roman Empire, it inherited a rich architectural legacy. Byzantine architects synthesized and innovated upon these Roman techniques, resulting in distinctive ecclesiastical buildings characterized by large domes, extensive mosaics, and a focus on verticality and light. The Hagia Sophia, completed in 537 AD, stands as a monumental example of this architectural style, featuring a massive dome supported by pendentives—a technique that allowed for more open and spacious interiors.

The Spread of Islam and Architectural Exchange

As Islam spread across the Middle East and North Africa, it encountered the sophisticated architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Early Islamic architects, particularly those in the Umayyad Caliphate, admired and adopted many Byzantine techniques and styles. This exchange is evident in the Great Mosque of Damascus, where the use of domes, arches, and intricate mosaics reflect Byzantine influence.

The Ottoman Era and Architectural Transformation

The architectural dialogue continued with the rise of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, who established their rule in 1299 and reached their peak by the 16th century, were keen students of Byzantine architectural traditions. A significant example of this cultural and architectural exchange is the transformation of the Hagia Sophia into a mosque in 1453. The Ottomans integrated Byzantine dome structures into their mosque designs, creating iconic silhouettes like those seen in the Blue Mosque in Istanbul. These structures feature multiple domes and semi-domes, reflecting the grandeur and spatial complexity of Byzantine prototypes.

Conclusion

The visual similarity between Orthodox churches and mosques is not simply a case of imitation. Instead, it reflects a complex historical evolution where Byzantine architecture, built upon Roman and Hellenistic foundations, profoundly influenced the development of Islamic architectural styles. Byzantine designs, characterized by their domes and intricate mosaics, were adopted and adapted by Islamic civilizations, leading to the beautiful and grandiose mosques we see today. This architectural legacy underscores the interconnectedness of cultures and the enduring influence of early innovations on subsequent generations.

Netflix New Historical Epic: Vikings Meet Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire in Valhalla’s Third Season

The Viking Encounters with Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire) and the Holy Roman Empire in Valhalla Season 3

The highly anticipated third season of Vikings: Valhalla is set to premiere on Netflix, marking the final chapter in the saga of Leif Eriksson, Freydís Eiríksdóttir, and Harald Sigurdsson. This season promises not only to continue the thrilling adventures of these iconic Vikings but also to delve into their interactions with the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, offering a rich tapestry of historical intrigue and epic storytelling.

Setting the Stage: From Scandinavia to Byzantium

Season 3 picks up seven years after the events of the second season, which left our heroes scattered and facing new challenges. Freydís, now the leader of pagan Jomsborg, Harald, and Leif, have all carved new paths for themselves. The series explores their journeys, with particular attention to Harald and Leif's exploits in Constantinople, the heart of the Byzantine Empire.

Constantinople, known for its grandeur and strategic importance, becomes a crucial backdrop in this season. Harald’s quest intertwines with his complex relationship with Elena, a mysterious woman betrothed to the Emperor. Their forbidden romance adds layers of tension and political intrigue, highlighting the cultural and religious contrasts between the Norse pagans and the Christian Byzantines. Meanwhile, Leif’s journey symbolizes a transformative period as he embraces Christianity and seeks knowledge in the Byzantine capital, reflecting the historical interactions between the Vikings and the Byzantine Empire during the early 11th century​​.

Byzantine General Maniakes and Historical Accuracy

The series has made several references to Byzantium in its recent episodes. While the show is primarily for entertainment rather than historical accuracy, it’s interesting to note some of the historical inaccuracies present.

In the series, Commander Euphemios is referred to as Byzantine. Historically, the term "Byzantine" was used only for the inhabitants of Constantinople (Byzantium) up until the 16th century. The German historian Hieronymus Wolf first used the term "Byzantine Empire" in 1555. During the medieval period, the correct term for Euphemios would likely have been "Roman," as the Byzantine Empire was known as the "Roman Empire" (Basileia Rhomaion) in that era. Since Euphemios was Greek-speaking, he could also be called "Graikos" (Greek), but not "Hellen," as that term was synonymous with pagan at the time.

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'Greklandsstenarna': What Are The Greece Runestones Of Vikings?

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One of the most intriguing new characters introduced in Season 3 is General Maniakes, portrayed by Florian Munteanu. Maniakes is a real historical figure, a prominent Byzantine general renowned for his military prowess and complex relationship with the empire's rulers. His inclusion in the series highlights the Vikings’ extensive travels and their encounters with diverse cultures and powerful empires. This portrayal offers a glimpse into the military strategies and political dynamics of the Byzantine Empire during this era, emphasizing the series’ commitment to weaving historical facts with dramatic narrative​.

The series suggests that the Roman Empire is a shadow of its former self. While it’s true that during the reign of Michael II (820–829), the empire was not as powerful as in the 1st or even the 6th century AD, it was still the most powerful state in Europe. It controlled Asia Minor, the southern Balkans, southern Italy, and Sicily. It successfully defended against the Lombards, Saracens, Arabs, Slavs, and Bulgarians, repelled two major Arab sieges in 674-678 and 717, survived a century-long religious schism known as Iconoclasm, and overcame a severe famine in 747–748. The empire could mobilize tens of thousands of soldiers and an impressive navy, remaining a beacon of civilization, with Constantinople being the wealthiest city in Europe.

The Varangian Guard, depicted as tall, bearded, axe-wielding Norse mercenaries, did not exist during the reign of Michael II, as suggested in the series. When Vladimir I of Kiev sent 6,000 Rus soldiers as a gift in exchange for Basil II's sister Anna, who Basil used to put down the rebellion of Bardas Phocas, Basil established the Guard in 988.

The Holy Roman Empire: A Crossroad of Power

In addition to the Byzantine connections, the season also touches upon the broader geopolitical landscape of early medieval Europe, including the Holy Roman Empire. This empire, a significant power in Western Europe, often clashed and interacted with both the Byzantine Empire and the Norse warriors. The complex relationships and conflicts between these entities are subtly explored through the characters’ journeys and the political maneuvers that shape their destinies.

The previous season vaguely referenced the Holy Roman Empire, often confusing it with the Byzantine Empire. However, these were distinct entities. In an effort to revive the Roman Empire, Charlemagne established the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe in the eighth century, which sparked hostilities with the Byzantine Empire. Even in the early 13th century, the Holy Roman Emperors referred to Byzantine Emperors as "Kings of the Greeks," asserting their claim to the Roman legacy.

The portrayal of these historical interactions enriches the narrative, providing viewers with a deeper understanding of the period’s intricate power dynamics. The series illustrates how the Viking incursions and alliances influenced the political and cultural landscapes of both the Byzantine and Holy Roman Empires, reflecting the interconnected nature of medieval European history​​.

Conclusion: A Grand Finale

As Vikings: Valhalla concludes with its third season, it promises a fitting end to the epic journeys of Leif, Freydís, and Harald. The inclusion of Byzantine and Holy Roman Empire elements not only adds historical depth but also broadens the scope of the series, showcasing the far-reaching influence and adventures of these legendary Vikings. Fans can expect a blend of historical authenticity, dramatic storytelling, and thrilling action, making this season a must-watch for history enthusiasts and series fans alike.

The final episodes of Vikings: Valhalla will be available on Netflix, providing an epic conclusion to a saga that has captivated audiences worldwide​​.

Ancient Forebear to a Holy Visage: The 'Madonna of Aigai' and Byzantine Art

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The "Madonna of Aigai" is a remarkable artifact that not only offers insights into the artistic conventions of the time but also provides an intriguing link between the classical art of ancient Greece and the religious iconography that would later become a staple of Byzantine culture.

The Fresco: Madonna of Aigai

The fresco referred to as the "Madonna of Aigai" hails from the Royal Macedonian Tomb at Aigai, located in Central Macedonia, Greece. Dated to the 4th century BC, this work is contemporaneous with the tumultuous period following the death of Alexander the Great and the subsequent division of his empire. The art of this era, known as the Hellenistic period, was characterized by increased expressiveness and dynamism, with a shift towards representing emotional intensity and realism in human figures.

The fresco itself is an enigmatic piece. While it is known as the "Madonna of Aigai," this title is a product of modern interpretation rather than an ancient designation. The figure depicted bears a striking resemblance to Christian images of the Virgin Mary, which were produced over a millennium later. This resemblance is particularly astounding given the secular nature of Greek art in the 4th century BC, which would not have depicted biblical figures.

The so-called “madonna” of Aigai. Detail from the grave stele of a woman, second half of 4th century BC

Evolution from Classical and Hellenistic Art to Roman and Byzantine Art

The transition from classical and Hellenistic art to Roman and subsequently Byzantine styles was neither abrupt nor homogeneous. Classical Greek art, famed for its pursuit of idealized human forms and balanced proportions, evolved during the Hellenistic period to embrace more naturalistic and individualized expressions. This period is noted for its dramatic expressions, intricate compositions, and an interest in depicting the textures of different materials.

Due to Alexander's conquests, Greek culture spread throughout the Mediterranean, blending Hellenistic artistic influences with regional customs that the Roman Empire would later inherit. Roman art borrowed heavily from the Greeks while also contributing innovations such as a greater focus on individual portraiture and the extensive use of narrative relief in architecture.

With the rise of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire and the eventual shift of the empire's center to Byzantium (later known as Constantinople), a new form of religious art began to emerge. Early Christian and Byzantine art was often less concerned with naturalism and more with conveying religious ideals and theological truths. Icons, characterized by their formalism and spiritual significance, became central to Byzantine worship.

Theotokos praying icon

Timeless Transitions: The 'Madonna of Aigai' as a Precursor to Byzantine Aesthetics

The "Madonna of Aigai" serves as a visual bridge between these eras. The fresco's style—particularly the figure's frontal stance, serene countenance, and the drapery's gold highlights—foreshadows the stylistic choices of Byzantine iconography. The frontal pose and direct gaze would become hallmarks of Byzantine religious figures, intended to engage the viewer in a direct and spiritual manner. The use of gold to accentuate the drapery recalls the opulence of Byzantine art, which often utilized gold to signify divine radiance.

However, the fresco still retains elements of Hellenistic artistry. The realistic depiction of the cloth's folds and the subtle modeling of the figure's face show a level of detail and naturalism that is characteristic of the Hellenistic style. This synthesis of styles suggests that while the iconography of the Byzantine era was distinct, it did not appear in a vacuum. Instead, it was the result of a complex process of cultural and artistic fusion that spanned centuries.

The "Madonna of Aigai" is a tantalizing piece that defies simple categorization. It encapsulates the transition from the world of ancient Greece, with its human-centered art, to the spiritually focused iconography of the Byzantine era. The fresco stands as a testament to the enduring and evolving nature of art, where styles and symbols of different eras can converge in a single piece, bridging the gap between past and present, secular and sacred.

The Language of Civilizations: The Continuing Influence of the Greek Language

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Odyssey of the Greek Language: The Fabric of Thought and Culture

Within the extensive tapestry of the world's 2,700 languages, Greek carves an unparalleled trajectory, spanning centuries with a unique and unbroken lineage. Its profound influence on the linguistic and cultural foundations of Europe and beyond renders Greek, arguably, one of the most pivotal languages on the globe.

Language, as a reflection of human cognition, underscores the essence of thought itself. Thus, the preservation and study of our linguistic heritage are not mere academic pursuits but fundamental to fostering our analytical capacities. Greek, with its rich literary and intellectual legacy, epitomizes this cultural wealth, demanding our reverence and understanding of its historical journey.

The illustrious history of Greek as a language of significant texts and ideas has left an indelible mark on civilization. This legacy is eloquently captured in the words of Odysseus Elytis, a luminary in Greek literature, who highlighted the uninterrupted tradition of Greek poetry over twenty-five centuries in his Nobel lecture, underscoring the profound cultural continuity and the weight of tradition borne by the Greek language.

Credit: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Greek's Significance and Legacy

Greek occupies a distinguished position among the world's languages, with a history of oral and written tradition that spans thousands of years, making it a singular example of linguistic continuity. Its evolution, from the ancient to the modern era, offers invaluable insights into the development of human language over time, distinguishing Greek not only for its longevity but also for its integral role in the cultivation of human thought and culture across diverse fields.

It's widely recognized that Greek presents an unparalleled case for linguistic scholars interested in tracing the development of a natural language across an extensive period. This positions Greek as the world's most ancient continuously developed language, distinguishing it even from notable examples like Chinese, which has primarily persisted in scholarly contexts, and Sanskrit, maintained chiefly within the confines of archaic, particularly religious, applications.

Greek's fundamental influence on the lexicon of science and academia, where Greek terms serve as the foundation of specialized languages in numerous disciplines, further demonstrates its enduring relevance. This linguistic contribution is rooted in a historical tradition of Greek scholarship, which laid the groundwork for linguistic analysis that continues to inform the study of languages worldwide.

The Greeks were pioneers in the study of their own language, laying the groundwork for linguistic analysis that would later extend to other languages through the intermediary of Latin. While ancient Indian grammarians, notably Pāṇini’s "Aṣṭādhyāyī," might have established the first grammar, its global recognition did not occur until the 19th century, thus it played no role in shaping Western linguistic traditions during their formative stages.

The Greek language's distinct characteristics, such as its syntactic flexibility and the coherence between signifier and signified, underscore its conceptual richness. This linguistic structure has facilitated the expression of complex philosophical, scientific, and artistic ideas throughout history, reflecting the intricate relationship between language, thought, and culture.

Affinity between Anatolian and Aegean languages according to the Anatolian hypothesis. The Greek language is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Credit: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Roots of Greek Linguistic Tradition

As an independent branch of the Indo-European language family, Greek boasts the longest documented history, with its script evolving from Mycenaean Linear B to the Greek alphabet, which has influenced numerous writing systems. The historical depth of Greek, from its earliest attestation in Linear B tablets to its role as the lingua franca of the Byzantine Empire and its status in modern Greece and Cyprus, illustrates the dynamic and enduring nature of the Greek language.

The oldest recorded evidences of the Greek language is inscribed on some Linear B clay tablet discovered in Messenia and Kafkania, dating from 1450 to 1350 BC. This artifact establishes Greek as the oldest documented living language globally. Within the family of Indo-European languages, only the extinct Anatolian languages share a comparable antiquity in terms of written records.

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The Evolution of the Greek Language Through the Ages

From Proto-Greek to Modern Greek, the language has undergone significant transformations, reflecting shifts in political, social, and cultural contexts. The evolution from Mycenaean Greek, through the dialectical diversity of Ancient Greek, to the commonality of Hellenistic Koine, and onto the complexities of Medieval and Modern Greek, highlights the adaptability and resilience of the Greek language across millennia.

The development of modern Greek, amid the backdrop of Ottoman rule and the formation of the modern Greek state, showcases the dynamic interplay between language, identity, and cultural continuity. The debates surrounding the language in the modern era, including the emergence of Katharevousa and the role of Demotic Greek, reflect ongoing conversations about the essence and evolution of Greek identity.

The Idalion Tablet: One Of The Earliest Known Written Contracts In Europe

In summary, the Greek language, with its rich historical tapestry and profound cultural impact, stands as a testament to the enduring legacy of Greek civilization. Its continuous development, from the ancient past to the present day, offers a unique lens through which to explore the complexities of human thought, culture, and identity.

The Mighty Walls of Constantinople: How They Shaped the Middle Ages

Some of the most impressive and strategically significant defensive structures in history protected the ancient city of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), which is now Istanbul. The walls of Constantinople, built during different eras, played a pivotal role in shaping the events of the Middle Ages and beyond.

Constructed initially in the early 5th century, the Theodosian Walls, named after the reigning emperor Theodosius II, were a marvel of engineering and afforded the city unprecedented protection. These massive fortifications spanned over four miles in circumference, featuring imposing towers and a wide moat. The impressive speed at which these walls were erected stands as a testament to both the empire's determination and the military prowess of its engineers.

The crown jewel of the Theodosian Walls, the Golden Gate, was a testament to the grandeur and resilience of Byzantine architecture. This majestic entrance was not only a symbol of imperial authority but also a strategic stronghold. Despite their formidable nature, the walls were put to the ultimate test when Constantinople faced a prolonged siege by the Ottoman forces in 1453.

The Ottoman army, under the leadership of Mehmed II, posed a significant threat to the city's defenses. The vulnerability of the walls to cannon fire from the nearby Lycus River Valley became a critical factor in the final assault on Constantinople. The city fell as a result of the Ottomans' relentless bombardment, which eventually breached the previously impenetrable defenses.

Mehmed II's forces overcame the formidable barriers, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. The fall of Constantinople was a defining moment in history, signaling the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance. The city's capture marked the end of an era and the beginning of a new chapter as Mehmed II entered Constantinople and converted the grand Hagia Sophia into a mosque, altering the city's cultural and religious landscape forever.

The walls of Constantinople, despite their ultimate fall, remain an enduring symbol of resilience and innovation. They were instrumental in shaping the course of history and stand as a reminder of the power struggles, conquests, and cultural transformations that defined the Middle Ages. Even in their demise, they continue to captivate the imagination and serve as a testament to the indomitable spirit of the Byzantine Empire.

The Byzantine Empire: A Complete Overview

The Byzantine Empire: History of Endurance and Triumph

The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, stood as a testament to resilience and longevity, persevering for over a thousand years after the fall of Rome. Triumphs, difficulties, and a rich cultural and historical tapestry were all part of this enduring legacy.

One of the pivotal figures in Byzantine history was Emperor Justinian, whose reign saw significant military successes and enduring legal influence that shaped the empire for centuries to come. However, Justinian also faced internal unrest, which led to riots and required extensive rebuilding efforts, including the commissioning of the iconic Church of the Holy Wisdom, or Hagia Sophia.

Following Justinian's reign, the empire encountered a period of weakening and external threats, particularly in the 700s. Despite these challenges, the Byzantine Empire managed to fend off invasions and maintain its core territories, demonstrating its resilience yet again.

The First Byzantine Iconoclasm and its consequences marked a significant chapter in the empire's history, bringing about religious controversies and shaping the cultural and artistic landscape.

The Byzantine Empire was not only a hub for trade but also a center of culture and innovation. Its silk production and conflicts with the West underscored its importance in the global economy and political dynamics.

The Macedonian Renaissance later renewed classical knowledge and supported the arts, contributing to the empire's cultural and intellectual influence.

Under Emperor Basil II's rule, the Byzantine Empire enjoyed wide-reaching control, a testament to its enduring power and influence.

However, the empire faced new threats and territorial losses after the defeat of Emperor Romanos IV, precipitating a period of struggle and recovery under leaders like Alexios I.

The Byzantine Empire's struggle for survival culminated in the face of the Ottoman expansion and the iconic siege of Constantinople, ultimately leading to the empire's fall in the early 1460s, marking the end of the Medieval Age and the end of an era for the Byzantine Empire.

Throughout its history, the Byzantine Empire exemplified endurance, triumph, and cultural richness, leaving an indelible legacy that continues to resonate in the present day.

The Fall of Constantinople 1453

On Easter Monday in 1453, an Ottoman army led by the young and ambitious Sultan Mehmed II arrived at the gates of the Byzantine capital Constantinople. This marked the beginning of a siege characterized by the determination of leaders, a city with extraordinary fortifications, and the most extensive siege artillery the world had seen to this day. The fall of Constantinople was a true watershed in history. It cemented the position of the Ottoman empire as the major power in the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean and it ended the long chapter of Roman history for good. The Roman Empire had in some ways outlasted the so-called fall of Rome in 476AD almost for a thousand years as it continued to exist as what we nowadays call the Byzantine Empire.

Up to this day thousands of pages have been written on the fall, or conquest, of Constantinople, and barely any other siege in history has received more attention by scholars and history buffs alike. In this video we tell the story of the staggering siege of Constantinople by weaving together the insights of the most recent scholarly literature. This required – given the many controversies about this siege - quite a lot of reading.

Preserved synthrona of early Christian churches reminiscent of ancient Greek theaters

The ancient Greek theater, before it developed into a Hellenistic entertainment event and then into a Roman arena with beast battles, duels and bloody killings of innocent people to the delight of the enraged citizens of the Roman decadence, had a ritualistic and educational character.

Aeschylus gave to theater its character with the scenery, dialogues and extras and later, after Aristophanes it was desanctified. However, it still had a didactic character.

The early Christian churches on the contrary, the Churches with synthrona clearly had influences from the ancient theater and the Ecclesia of Demos. But it is also possible that its ritual, by Greek scholars and Greek-studied Christian philosophers, may have direct influences from ancient rituals.

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These are some photos of preserved synthrona of early Christian churches:

Agios Nikolaos, Demre, modern Turkey.

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Agia Irini, Constantinople, modern Turkey

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Hagia Sophia, Nice, modern Turkey

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Amoria, modern Turkey

Why Hagia Sophia Doesn't Collapse? Architect Explains

Nestled in the historical heart of Constantinople, nowadays Istanbul, the Hagia Sophia tells a story deeply interwoven with architectural genius and spiritual significance.

Originally commissioned by Emperor Constantine as a church, it was enveloped in flames during the Nika riots in 532 AD. Over its charred remnants, Emperor Justinian envisioned a new church, incorporating unparalleled architectural innovations and conceptual depth.

The Role of Pendentives

The Hagia Sophia stands as a synthesis of basilican and centralized architectural elements. With architects Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles at the helm, the church introduced the pendentive, a triangular structural element that facilitated the placement of a circular dome over a square base. This innovative solution allowed for a simultaneously linear and centralized spatial articulation, intertwining the traditional basilican aisle structure with a dominating central dome.

Structural Acumen

The pendentive does not merely serve a structural purpose but is drenched in symbolic meaning, especially in the context of Hagia Sophia's Christian origin. The reconciliation between the circle, representing the cosmos, and the square, symbolizing the earth, is achieved through the pendentive – a triangle that embodies the Christian Trinity. It unites the cosmic and earthly realms, mediating a divine connection between them.

The Dichotomy with the Pantheon: Material vs. Dematerialization

In comparison to the Pantheon in Rome, Hagia Sophia employs a sophisticated and 'dematerialized' architectural approach. While the Pantheon impresses with its voluminous materiality, Hagia Sophia awes observers with its seeming defiance of gravity and its ethereal interplay of space and light. The Byzantine aesthetic here diverges significantly from the heavy, earth-bound Roman architectural tradition, floating towards an almost otherworldly manifestation.

Light and Material

The Hagia Sophia is emblematic of a divine presence through its strategic and meticulous use of light. Described by historian Procopius as a space singularly brimming with light and sunshine, its interior creates an illusion of an inner source of light, of rays being produced from within. The marble, tesserae, and other materials, each carefully chosen and placed, enhance this ethereal luminosity, converging into a luminous, ornamented surface that speaks of the divine.

An Evolving Symbol of Faith: Navigating through Histories and Cultures

Throughout centuries, Hagia Sophia has donned various spiritual and cultural cloaks. It transitioned from a church to a mosque, then to a public museum, and back to a mosque again, absorbing and reflecting the diverse sociopolitical and religious contexts of its time. Minarets, added during its tenure as a mosque, meld with its Byzantine architectural expression, symbolizing its journey through different epochs and faiths.

Hagia Sophia, standing majestically as a testament to human architectural ingenuity and profound spiritual symbolism, is a melting pot of history, art, and religion. It is not merely a structure but a narrative woven over centuries, reflecting the manifold facets of human civilization, belief, and aesthetic appreciation. From the pioneering introduction of the pendentive to the opulent utilization of light and material, it manifests an intricate blend of tangible reality and the intangible divine, inviting generations across epochs to ponder, marvel, and seek connections between heaven and earth.

Through its ever-evolving roles, from an emperor’s church to its current status as a mosque, Hagia Sophia has and will continue to enchant and mystify humanity with its sublime beauty and layered historical significance. It perpetually oscillates between two realms, being a palpable architectural marvel and an ethereal symbol of the divine interplay between light, space, and faith.

The "Greek Fire": A Byzantine Flamethrower of Death

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by the archaeologist editor group

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The annals of military history are replete with weapons that have changed the course of wars, but few have been as mysterious and terrifying as the Greek Fire. For centuries, this incendiary weapon of the Byzantine Empire instilled dread in the hearts of its enemies and played a pivotal role in the defense of Constantinople. Let’s delve into the history, mechanics, and secrets of this ancient weapon that was centuries ahead of its time.

Origins

Greek Fire, known as "Υγρό Πυρ" (Ygro Pyr) or "Liquid Fire" in Byzantine texts, was primarily used by the Byzantine Empire, especially during naval warfare. Its first recorded use was by the Byzantines in 678 AD during the Arab-Byzantine Wars. The Arabs, attempting to lay siege to Constantinople, found themselves under assault from a flame that water could not douse, turning the tides of the battle.

The exact origins of Greek Fire remain shrouded in mystery, but many historians believe it was developed in the 7th century by a Christian Greek architect and chemist named Kallinikos of Heliopolis. It's said that Kallinikos fled from the Arab conquest of Syria to the Byzantine capital, bringing the secret of the fearsome weapon with him.

Mechanics

What made Greek Fire especially formidable was its unique deployment method. The Byzantines used a tube or siphon, not unlike a flamethrower, to spray the liquid fire onto enemy ships or personnel. These tubes, known as "siphonophorai," could be mounted on ships or fortifications.

When lit, the concoction would ignite, casting a terrifying wall of fire towards the target. The fact that the fire clung to surfaces and was notoriously difficult to extinguish (water was said to exacerbate it) only amplified its psychological and physical impact.

Secret Composition

The precise ingredients and process of making Greek Fire remain a subject of debate and speculation. What's clear is that it was a petroleum-based mixture, likely involving crude oil, pitch, or naphtha. Some theories suggest the inclusion of sulfur, resin, lime, or even certain organic components like animal fats or oils. The Byzantines went to great lengths to keep the formula a state secret, with the production closely guarded and centralized. This secrecy is why, despite numerous attempts by enemies and allies alike, the exact replication of Greek Fire was never achieved.

Legacy and Decline

The Byzantines’ mastery of Greek Fire helped repel several sieges on Constantinople and ensured naval dominance for the empire in the Mediterranean for many years. However, its use started to decline by the 13th century, possibly due to the loss of the territories that supplied its ingredients or perhaps because of the emergence of alternative military technologies.

Today, Greek Fire stands as a symbol of Byzantine ingenuity and resilience. Its aura of mystery and the visual spectacle it must have created in naval battles make it one of the most fascinating weapons in ancient warfare.

While the mysteries of Greek Fire may never be fully unraveled, its legacy in the annals of military innovation remains undeniable. Serving as a testament to the scientific and military prowess of the Byzantine Empire, Greek Fire remains a beacon of ancient ingenuity and a vivid reminder of the lengths civilizations will go to defend their territories and way of life.

What is the Phantom Time Hypothesis Theory?

By Katie Serena | Checked By John Kuroski

Original title: Bizarre Phantom Time Hypothesis Theory Says It’s Actually The Year 1720 Because The Early Middle Ages Were Faked

According to the Phantom Time Hypothesis, Charlemagne never existed along with 297 years that were just made up.

In a world where every idea seems divisive, it can help to know there are at least a few things that the world as a whole agrees on. Time, the calendar, and the basic idea that history as we know it happened pretty much like historians say it did are just a few of those things. After all, at the very least we can all agree that the year is 2017, right?

Wrong.

According to German historian Heribert Illig, the year is actually 1720, the Gregorian calendar is a lie, and a chunk of Middle Ages was completely made up.

No, this man is not crazy (at least not officially) and he actually claims to have archeological evidence to support his case.

In 1991, Illig proposed his theory, aptly called the Phantom Time Hypothesis. He claims there was conspiracy entered into back in 1000 AD to change the dating system by three world rulers.

Illig claims that Pope Sylvester II, Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII all got together and changed the calendar to make it seem as if Otto had begun his reign in the millennial year of 1000 AD, rather than 996. The reason being that 1000 sounded a lot more meaningful than 996 considering AD stands for “anno domini,” or, “the year of the Lord.”

Illig further claims that the trio altered existing documents, and created fraudulent historical events and people in order to back themselves up. He claims that Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne was not in fact a real ruler, but simply a King Arthur-type legend. He explains that through all of this tampering and forgery, an extra 297 years were added to history.

Two hundred and ninety-seven years that didn’t actually happen.

Illig says that an inadequate system of dating medieval artifacts, as well as an over-reliance on written history are to blame. According to his research, the years between 614 and 911 AD don’t quite add up. The years prior to 614 were full of historically significant events, as were the years after 911, however, he claims that the ones in between were unusually dull.

He also points out that mathematical discrepancies between the Julian and Gregorian calendars further complicates things. The Julian calendar says that a full year is 365.25 days long, whereas the Gregorian calendar — the one we use now — says it’s actually 11 minutes shorter than that.

Furthermore, Illig claims that Roman architecture in 10th century western Europe is too modern for the time period in which it was supposedly built.

Though his Phantom Time Hypothesis seems far fetched, Illig has actually managed to find some supporters.

Dr. Hans-Ulrich Niemitz published a paper in 1995 titled “Did the Early Middle Ages Really Exist?” in which he claims they did not.

“Between Antiquity (1 AD) and the Renaissance (1500 AD) historians count approximately 300 years too many in their chronology,” Niemitz wrote. “In other words: the Roman emperor Augustus really lived 1700 years ago instead of the conventionally assumed 2000 years.”

Some of Niemitz’s claims echoed Illig’s, such has the discrepancies between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the lack of reliable historical sources. Though, Neimitz did admit that a counterargument could exist, as the Byzantium and Islamic regions were at war during the period, which was well documented.

Most historians worldwide are critical of the Phantom Time Hypothesis. Countless historians have chosen to argue it have used recorded dates of solar eclipses to do so, along with documented histories from other parts of the world that overlap the “missing” time periods.

Monument of Episkopi; From a Roman Mausoleum to a Byzantine Church

The monument of Episkopi on Sikinos, one of the smallest Cycladic islands, is a Roman mausoleum dating back to the 3rd century. Because of its conversion to a Byzantine church, it was continuously used and has therefore survived nearly intact. Its ancient structure, combined with interventions from several historical periods, offers an incomparable palimpsest of archaeological periods that is rarely preserved in ancient monuments.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

Severely affected by destructive earthquakes and human interventions throughout the centuries, the monument was abandoned in the 20th century. The Ephorate of Antiquities of the Cyclades decided to restore the building in 2016 and reopen it to the public.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

The restoration study was undertaken by the scientific personnel of the Ephorate; Elliniki Etairia – Society for the Environment and Cultural Heritage and the A. & M. Martinou Foundation funded the structural and geotechnical studies. The restoration project was financed by the European Regional Development Fund and the Region of South Aegean.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

The impressive ancient mausoleum that was created on the verge of Late Antiquity, has been an important landmark for the island of Sikinos throughout the centuries. The archaeological research that took place during its restoration significantly increased knowledge of funerary monuments of the Roman period in the Eastern Mediterranean Region as well as of Cycladic Byzantine churches.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

During the restoration work on Episkopi, archaeologists made many valuable discoveries, such as inscriptions and remnants of Roman and Byzantine wall paintings, which were preserved by implementing a microclimate monitoring system. The most important find was the hermetically sealed grave of a woman of high rank, named ‘Neiko’, which was dated to the 3rd century.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

The community of Sikinos was strongly committed to the restoration of the monument of Episkopi and provided housing, transportation and even equipment. With the monument having been closed to the public for half a century, the local community now aspires to reinstate its vital bond with this cultural heritage site, first by re-establishing the annual feast in August for the celebration of the Dormition of Virgin Mary and then by launching cultural activities in this unique archaeological setting, in collaboration with the Ephorate of Antiquities of Cyclades.

The History of Writing: Tracing the Development of expressing Language by Systems of Markings

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Protowriting, ideographic systems, or early mnemonic symbols came before more advanced writing systems in the evolution of writing in human societies (symbols or letters that make remembering them easier).

A subsequent development is true writing, in which the content of a spoken language is encoded so that another reader may reasonably reconstruct the identical utterance written down. It differs from proto-writing, which frequently forgoes recording grammatical words and affixes, making it harder or even impossible to reassemble the precise meaning intended by the writer unless a substantial amount of context is already known in advance.

Writing innovations

The idea that writing originated in a single civilization and was called "monogenesis" persisted for a long time. According to academics, all writing originated in Mesopotamia's ancient Sumer and spread around the world as a result of cultural diffusion. This argument holds that traders or merchants traveling between geographical locations passed on the idea of representing language by written signs, though perhaps not necessarily the specifics of how such a system operated.

The finding of ancient Mesoamerican scripts, far from Middle Eastern sources, demonstrated, however, that writing had been created more than once. In at least four ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BCE), Egypt (about 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala, writing may have independently originated (by 500 BCE).

Some academics have suggested that ancient Egypt "The earliest authentic examples of Egyptian writing differ from Mesopotamian writing in both structure and style, indicating that they must have emerged independently. Although there is still a chance that Mesopotamian "stimulus dispersion" occurred, the influence could not have extended beyond the dissemination of an idea."

Because there is no evidence of communication between ancient China and the Near Eastern literate civilizations, as well as because Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to phonetic representation differ, it is thought that ancient Chinese characters are independent creations.

The Vinča symbols.

The Rongorongo script of Easter Island, the Vina symbols from about 5500 BCE, and the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization are all controversial. Since none have been translated, it is unclear if they all represent real writing, protowriting, or something entirely different.

The earliest coherent texts date from around 2600 BCE, and Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and Egyptian hieroglyphs are usually regarded as the earliest authentic writing systems. Both developed out of their ancestors' proto-literate symbol systems between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The Proto-Elamite script belongs to roughly the same time frame.

writing methods

Writing systems are distinct from symbolic communication systems. For most writing systems, reading a text requires some knowledge of the spoken language that goes along with it. In contrast, it's not always necessary to have a prior understanding of a spoken language to use symbolic systems like information signs, paintings, maps, and mathematics. Every human group has its own language, which is thought by many to be a natural and essential aspect of mankind.

Writing system development has been intermittent, uneven, and delayed, and old oral communication systems have only been partially replaced. Writing systems generally develop more slowly after they are formed than their spoken counterparts and frequently preserve traits and idioms that have been lost to the spoken language.

Three writing standards are thought to apply to all writing systems. First, writing must be comprehensive; it must have a meaning or purpose, and it must make a point or be able to convey that message. Second, whether they are physical or digital, all writing systems must include some kind of symbol that can be created on a surface. In order to facilitate communication, the writing system's symbols must resemble spoken words or speech.

The greatest advantage of writing is that it gives society a way to regularly and thoroughly preserve information—something that the spoken word could not previously do as successfully. Writing enables communities to communicate knowledge, transmit information, and

stages of development

Sumer

An ancient civilization of southern Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where written language was first invented around 3200 BCE.

Beginning with the Neolithic pottery phase, when clay tokens were used to keep track of particular quantities of animals or other goods, writing first appeared. These tokens were initially imprinted on the exterior of spherical clay envelopes, which were later used to keep them. Afterwards, flat tablets were gradually introduced in place of the tokens, and signs were recorded using a stylus. Towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk was where actual writing was first discovered. Other areas of the Near East quickly followed.

The earliest recorded account of the development of writing is found in a poem from ancient Mesopotamia:

The Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and wrote on it like a tablet because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat the message. It has never been possible to write on clay before.

Enmerkar and the King of Aratta, a Sumerian epic written around 1800 BCE

Although there is agreement among scholars as to the difference between prehistory and the history of early writing, there is disagreement as to when proto-writing became "real writing." The criteria are somewhat arbitrary. In the broadest sense, writing is a way of keeping track of information. It is made up of graphemes, which in turn can be made up of glyphs.

Many centuries of shattered inscriptions typically follow the advent of writing in a particular region. The presence of coherent texts in a culture's writing system is how historians determine a culture's "historicity".

Standard reconstruction of the development of writing. There is a possibility that the Egyptian script was invented independently from the Mesopotamian script.

A conventional "proto-writing to true writing" system follows a general series of developmental stages:

Picture writing system: glyphs (simplified pictures) directly represent objects and concepts. In connection with this, the following substages may be distinguished:

• Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.

• Pictographic: glyphs directly represent an object or a concept such as (A) chronological, (B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, titles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G) historical, and (H) biographical.

• Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols that directly represent an idea or concept.

Pre-cuneiform tags, with drawing of goat or sheep and number (probably "10"): "Ten goats", Al-Hasakah, 3300–3100 BCE, Uruk culture.

Transitional system: graphemes refer not only to the object or idea that it represents but to its name as well.

• Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings. This resolves itself into the following substages:

• Verbal: grapheme (logogram) represents a whole word.

• Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.

• Alphabetic: grapheme represents an elementary sound.

Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt. They are remarkably similar to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.

The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:

• Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BCE

• Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BCE[24]

• Early Indus script, c. 3100 BCE

In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC).

Locations and timeframes

Comparative evolution

from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian cuneiforms, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters

Proto-writing

The first writing systems of the Early Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather, they were a development based on earlier traditions of symbol systems that cannot be classified as proper writing, but have many of the characteristics of writing. These systems may be described as "proto-writing". They used ideographic or early mnemonic symbols to convey information, but it probably directly contained no natural language. These systems emerged in the early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th millennium BC, and include:

• The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Jiahu, Henan province, northern China, with radiocarbon dates from the 7th millennium BCE. Most archaeologists consider these not directly linked to the earliest true writing.

• Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube script", are a set of symbols found on Neolithic era (6th to 5th millennia BCE) artifacts from the Vinča culture of Central Europe and Southeast Europe.

• The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millennium may also be an example of proto-writing.

• The Indus script, which from 3500 BCE to 1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscriptions.

The Dispilio Tablet

The Dispilio tablet is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings, unearthed during George Hourmouziadis's excavations of Dispilio in Greece, and carbon 14-dated to 5202 (± 123) BC.

It was discovered in 1993 in a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island near the modern village of Dispilio on Lake Kastoria in Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece.

Even after the Neolithic, a number of societies used proto-writing as a transitional form before adopting formal writing. Such a mechanism might have existed in the quipu of the Incas (15th century CE), often known as "talking knots". Another example is the pictographs created by Uyaquk before the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language developed the Yugtun syllabary around 1900.

Ancient writing

The Bronze Age saw the development of writing in a wide range of cultures. Indus script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cretan hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, Sumerian cuneiform writing, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica are a few examples. Around 1600 BCE, the Chinese script most likely evolved apart from the Middle Eastern scripts. It is also generally accepted that the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems, which include the Olmec and Maya scripts, had separate origins. In 2000 BCE, it is believed that the first real alphabetic writing was created for Hebrew laborers in the Sinai by assigning Semitic values to mostly Egyptian hieratic characters (see History of the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet).

Ethiopia's Geez writing system is regarded as Semitic. With roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system, it is most likely of semi-independent origin. The majority of alphabets used today are either direct descendants of this one invention, many through the Phoenician alphabet, or were designed in direct response to it. The early Old Italic alphabet and Plautus (c. 750–250 BCE) were separated by around 500 years in Italy, while the Elder Futhark inscriptions and early works like the Abrogans (c. 200–750 CE) are separated by a similar amount of time in the case of the Germanic peoples.

Cuneiform writing

The first Sumerian script was derived from a system of clay tokens used to denote different types of goods. This had developed into a system of keeping accounts by the end of the fourth millennium BC, utilizing a stylus with a circular form that was impressed into soft clay at various angles to record numbers. A pointed stylus was used to gradually add pictographic lettering on this to show what was being counted. Writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the name "cuneiform") began to include phonetic features by the 29th century BCE and gradually replaced writing with a round stylus and a sharp stylus by about 2700–2500 BCE.

Cuneiform first started to represent Sumerian syllables around 2600 BCE. Ultimately, cuneiform writing evolved into a general-purpose system for writing numerals, syllables, and logograms. This alphabet was adapted to the Akkadian language starting in the 26th century BCE, and from there to others like Hurrian and Hittite. This writing system resembles Old Persian and Ugaritic scripts in appearance.

Hieroglyphics from Egypt

Literacy was concentrated among a well-educated elite of scribes, who played a crucial role in upholding the Egyptian empire through writing. To become scribes in the employ of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authority, one had to come from a certain background.

According to Geoffrey Sampson, the general concept of expressing words from a language in writing was likely transmitted to Egypt via Sumerian Mesopotamia. Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into being a little after Sumerian script, and, possibly [were], invented under the influence of the latter." Despite the significance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia links, "no definitive judgment has been established as to the genesis of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt" due to the lack of direct evidence. However, it is stated and agreed upon that "a very compelling argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt" and that "the evidence for such direct influence remains fragile."

Egyptian writing does suddenly appear at that time, but Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to around 8000 BCE. Since the 1990s, discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the conventional idea that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. These glyphs were discovered in tomb U-J at Abydos; they were written on ivory and most likely served as labels for other items discovered there.

Even though he acknowledged that Egypt's geographic location made it a receptacle for many influences, Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar maintained that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols originated from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and that in regards to writing, "we have seen that a purely Nilotic, therefore African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality."

Elamite writing

The unintelligible Proto-Elamite writing first appears around 3100 BCE. Around the latter third millennium, it is thought to have evolved into Linear Elamite, which was later supplanted by Elamite Cuneiform, which was adapted from Akkadian.

Indus script

Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a writing system used to record the as yet unidentified language(s) of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Indus script has been assigned to markings and symbols discovered at numerous Indus Valley civilization sites due to the hypothesis that they were used to transcribe the Harappan language. It is disputed whether the script, which was in use from roughly 3500 to 1900 BCE, is a Bronze Age writing script (logographic-syllabic) or merely proto-writing symbols. According to analysis, it was written in boustrophedon or from right to left.

early SEMITIC ALPHABETS

Around 1800 BCE in Ancient Egypt, the first "abjads," which mapped individual symbols to individual phonemes but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol, appeared as a representation of the language created there by Semitic workers. However, by that time, alphabetic principles had only a remote chance of being ingrained into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium.

Did the Proto-Canaanite alphabet take its symbols independently of the hieroglyphs?

It is only until the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script separates into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BCE), Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BCE). These early abjads remained of minor significance for several decades. The untranslated Byblos syllabary most likely had some influence on the Proto-Canaanite, which in turn provided inspiration for the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BCE).

Anatolian hieroglyphs

The Luwian language was written down using Anatolian hieroglyphs, a native hieroglyphic script found in western Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BCE, it initially appeared on royal seals of the Luwians.

Chinese characters

The corpus of inscriptions on oracle bones and brass from the late Shang dynasty is the earliest authenticated example of the Chinese script that has been found so far. The oldest of these is believed to date from about 1200 BCE.

There have been recent finds of tortoise-shell carvings from around 6000 BCE, such as Jiahu Script and Banpo Script, but it is debatable whether or not the carvings are complex enough to be considered writing. 3,172 cliff carvings from the period between 6000 and 5000 BCE have been found near Damaidi in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They contain 8,453 different characters, including images of the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes of grazing or hunting.

Replica

of ancient Chinese script on an oracle turtle shell

These pictographs are thought to resemble the first Chinese characters that have been confirmed to be written. Writing in China would predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, traditionally recognized as the first manifestation of writing, by about 2,000 years if it were to be considered a written language. However, it is more likely that the inscriptions represent a type of proto-writing, comparable to the modern European Vinca script.

Early Greek and Cretan scripts

Cretan relics include hieroglyphic writing (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). The Mycenaean Greek writing system, Linear B, has been decoded, but Linear A has not yet been. The three overlapping, but distinct, Aegean pre-alphabetic writing systems can be categorized according to their chronological order and geographic distribution as follows:

• Cretan Hieroglyphic / Crete (eastward from the Knossos-Phaistos axis) / c. 2100−1700 BCE

• Linear A / Crete (except extreme southwest), Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), Greek mainland (Laconia) and west Minor Asia (Miletus and maybe Troy) / c. 1800−1450 BCE

• Linear B / Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) / c. 1450−1200 BCE

The archaeological finds with signs of pre-alphabetic scripts in the Aegean

(Up) The finds with signs of Linear B script reach about 6,000 and constitute the majority of the pre-alphabetic written monuments of the Aegean.

(Middle) About 1,400 are the finds which imprint Linear A and make up a 11% of all pre-alphabetic inscriptions.

(Down) Cretan hieroglyphics occupies 2% of the available finds with only 400 finds.

Illustration: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mesoamerica

The Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing that predates the first Zapotec writing from around 500 BCE, was found in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere.

Stela 12 and 13

from the southern end of Building L, in the Zapotec city of Monte Albán, Outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

The Maya script is one of numerous pre-Columbian scripts found in Mesoamerica, and it appears to have been the most well-developed and extensively deciphered. The earliest clearly identifiable Maya inscriptions date to the third century BCE, and writing continued to be used until just before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century BCE. A combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, utilized in Maya writing, is somewhat reminiscent of current Japanese writing.

IRON AGE WRITING

The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was used into the Iron Age, is all that the Phoenician alphabet is (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BCE). The Greek and Aramaic alphabets were derived from this alphabet. They eventually gave rise to the writing systems that are currently used everywhere, from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. The Greek alphabet, on the other hand, was the first to use specific symbols to represent vowel sounds.

By Matt Baker

In the first centuries of the Common Era, the Greek and Latin alphabets gave rise to a number of European scripts, including the Runes, Gothic, and Cyrillic alphabets, while the Aramaic alphabet developed into the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac abjads, the latter of which spread as far as Mongolian script. The Ge'ez abugida originated from the South Arabian alphabet. According to some academics, the Indian Brahmic family also descended from the Aramaic alphabet.

GRAKLIANI HILL WRITING

At Georgia's Grakliani Hill, behind a fallen altar from a temple dedicated to a fertility goddess from the seventh century BCE, an obscure script was uncovered in 2015. Grakliani's other temples' inscriptions, which depict animals, people, or decorative features, are different from these ones. Although its letters are rumored to be connected to ancient Greek and Aramaic, the script has no similarities to any known alphabet. In contrast, the earliest Armenian and Georgian letters come from the fifth century CE, right after the respective nations converted to Christianity. The inscription looks to be the oldest local alphabet ever uncovered in the entire Caucasus region. An portion of the inscription measuring 31 by 3 inches had been unearthed by September 2015.

Grakliani script on the basement of altar of goddess of fertility (XI-X c. BC)

Vakhtang Licheli, director of the State University's Institute of Archaeology, claims that "The writings on the temple's two altars have been kept in remarkably good condition. While the pedestal of the second altar is entirely covered with writings, the first altar has few clay letters carved into it." Unpaid students made the discovery. Inscriptions from Grakliani Hill were sent to Miami Laboratory in 2016 for beta analytic radiocarbon dating, which revealed that they were created between c. 1005 and c. 950 BCE.

WRITING IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script for use with their own language in the early eighth century BCE, the history of the Greek alphabet officially began. The Greek and Phoenician alphabets share a lot of similarities in terms of their characters, and both alphabets nowadays are written in the same order. The Phoenician system's adapter(s) added three letters to the conclusion of the series, known as the "supplementals." The Greek alphabet evolved into a number of different forms.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

One was utilized in southern Italy and west of Athens and is known as Western Greek or Chalcidian. The other variant, known as Eastern Greek, was spoken by the Athenians and in modern-day Turkey before spreading over the rest of the Greek-speaking world. The Greeks initially elected to write like the Phoenicians, from right to left, but subsequently switched to left to right. The lines would then alternately read from left to right, then from right to left, and so on. On occasion, though, the writer would begin the next line where the preceding one ended. Up until the sixth century, this style of writing, called "boustrophedon," mirrored the course of an ox-drawn plough.

Italic scripts and Latin

Cippus Perusinus

Etruscan writing near Perugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alphabet

All of the contemporary European scripts have their roots in Greek. The Latin alphabet, named after the Latins, a central Italian people who came to rule Europe with the emergence of Rome, is the most widely used descendant of the Greek script. Around the fifth century BCE, the Etruscan civilization, which employed a multitude of Italic scripts descended from the western Greeks, taught the Romans how to write. The other Old Italic scripts have not survived in very large quantities due to the cultural hegemony of the Roman state, and the Etruscan language is largely extinct.

WRITING DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Roman rule in Western Europe fell apart, and the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire became the main centers of literary development. Latin, which was never a major literary language, lost prominence quickly (except within the Roman Catholic Church). Greek and Persian were the two main literary languages, but Syriac and Coptic were also significant.

Arabic quickly became a significant literary language in the area as a result of the development of Islam in the 7th century. Greek's status as a scholarly language soon lost ground to Arabic and Persian. The Turkish and Persian languages now use Arabic script as their principal writing system. The development of the cursive scripts for Greek, the Slavic languages, Latin, and other languages was also greatly inspired by this script.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system was also extended throughout Europe thanks to the Arabic language. The modern Spanish city of Cordoba had emerged as one of the world's leading intellectual hubs by the start of the second millennium and was home to the largest library at the time. Its location at the meeting point of the Islamic and Western Christian worlds encouraged intellectual growth and written exchange between the two cultures.

THE MODERN ERA AND THE RENAISSANCE

By the 14th century, Western Europe had experienced a renaissance, which had temporarily increased the significance of Greek while slowly restoring Latin's status as an important literary language. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, a comparable but smaller emergence took place. As the Islamic Golden Era came to an end, Arabic and Persian also started to slowly lose ground. In order to codify the phonologies of the various languages, the Latin alphabet underwent several alterations as a result of the rebirth of literary development in Western Europe.

Writing has undergone steady change throughout history, in large part because of the emergence of new technologies. Technology advancements such as the printing press, computer, mobile phone, and pen have all changed how and what is written as well as the medium in which it is generated. Characters can now be generated with a button press rather than a hand motion, especially with the development of digital technology like the computer and the smartphone.

Archaeologists Call on Unesco to Protect the Hagia Sophia

Greek archaeologists are calling on Unesco to protect the Hagia Sophia, the religious and cultural site in Istanbul, Turkey, that’s nearly 1,500 years old.

The Hagia Sophia, one of Turkey’s most popular tourist sites, has been a Unesco World Heritage Site since 1985. However, in recent years, the Byzantine-era building has suffered increased vandalism and damage. Writing in an open letter to Unesco’s director general, Audrey Azoulay, last week, members of the Association of Greek Archaeologists asked the organization to “intervene forcefully to reverse the current situation.”

In July 2020, a Turkish high court stripped the Hagia Sophia of its museum status, allowing it to be used as a functioning mosque. In recent years, the archaeologists claim, the historic site’s managers have allowed an “uncontrolled flow of visitors” to enter the building unchecked, without regard for the facility’s artistic and historical significance.

“The Ottoman wooden door leaves of the Imperial Gate were damaged, wall coatings were scraped and removed, fountains and doors were used for shoe storage, marble floor slabs were destroyed,” the archaeologists write in the letter. “The unique Byzantine mosaics remain covered and unseen. Archaeological supervision has stayed outside the monument.”

The letter references a handful of incidents that made headlines following the 2020 court decision. Earlier this summer, heavy cleaning equipment cracked the Hagia Sophia’s marble floors. And before that, in April, a group of Turkish art historians tweeted a photo showing damage to the building’s 23-foot Imperial Gate.

Unless someone intervenes, the archaeologists see “gloomy prospects” ahead for the Hagia Sophia, they write in the letter.

Constructed between 532 and 537 C.E. under the direction of Justinian I, the building served as a Christian cathedral—the largest in the world—for more than 900 years. In 1453, when the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople, the site became a mosque. Later, in 1935, Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk designated it as a museum.

The push to take away the Hagia Sophia’s museum status started in 2005, when advocates petitioned the country’s high administrative court. The court ultimately agreed with the petitioners, opening the Hagia Sophia to worshippers and handing over the site’s management from Turkey’s Ministry of Culture to the nation’s religious affairs department.

At the time of the decision, Unesco issued a statement saying it deeply regretted the decision to change the Hagia Sophia’s status. As Kristin Romey wrote for National Geographic in 2020, any attempt to modify a World Heritage Site requires prior notification of Unesco, as well as a review by the World Heritage Committee.

“Hagia Sophia is an architectural masterpiece and a unique testimony to interactions between Europe and Asia over the centuries,” said Azoulay in Unesco’s 2020 statement. “Its status as a museum reflects the universal nature of its heritage, and makes it a powerful symbol for dialogue.”

But even before the 2020 ruling, conservationists were worried about the fate of the Hagia Sophia, which struggled to get consistent funding for preservation work. It’s also situated atop a fault line, so an earthquake or tremor could cause serious damage to the site. As John Stubbs, a longtime advisor to the World Monuments Fund, told Smithsonian magazine’s Fergus M. Bordewich in 2008, the Hagia Sophia is an “unbelievably complex structure.”

“There’s the roof, the stonework, marble, mosaics, paintings,” Stubbs said. “We don’t even know all that’s in play in there. But we do know that it requires ongoing, vigilant attention. Hagia Sophia is an utterly unique building—a key monument in the history of architecture and a key symbol of the city of Constantinople right through to our time.”

Ancient glass vessels restored after Beirut blast go on display at British Museum

Eight objects from Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods were shattered in port explosion two years ago

A team of experts reassembled hundreds of pieces of glass. Photograph: The Trustees of the British Museum the American University of Beirut/PA

Restored ancient glass vessels that were damaged in the Beirut port explosion two years ago have gone on display at the British Museum.

The eight objects, from the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods, have been pieced back together by museum conservation experts and are being showcased at the London venue until October before being returned to Lebanon.

The artefacts are among the precious items to have been saved in an emergency recovery campaign that was launched after the American University in Beirut (AUB) Museum was heavily damaged in the disaster that killed at least 218 people, wounded 7,000 and displaced 300,000 people in August 2020.

The vessels were among 74 items from the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods in a case at the AUB that fell over after being hit by the shockwave of the explosion, which occurred 2 miles (3km) away after a massive stockpile of ammonium nitrate exploded.

The blast hit the building and smashed the glass objects inside the case.
The British Museum’s director, Hartwig Fischer, said the items – which are on show in an event called Shattered glass Of Beirut at the Asahi Shimbun Displays – “tells a story of near destruction and recovery, of resilience and collaboration”.

Hidde van Seggelen, president of the European Fine Art Foundation (Tefaf), said: “We are immensely gratified to see the restoration of these ancient glass objects come to fruition.”

“Bringing these pieces back to their rightful form has been a compelling symbol of resilience and we are honoured to have been part of this important collaboration,” he added.

A team of experts carefully reassembled hundreds of fragments of glass and the vessels have been repaired so they are structurally sound, although the breakage marks can still be seen.

Dr Nadine Panayot, curator of the AUB Archaeological Museum, said: “Reconstructing these fragmented glass vessels one tiny bit at a time, helped to reunite, to recognise their heritage value, and to build a sense of community.

“To see these shattered and delicate vessels reassembled not only sparked a healing process, but also inspired me to hope for a better future.”

The British Museum said the vessels that have been conserved at the London site are hugely important in telling the story of the development of glass-blowing technology in Lebanon in the first century BC, a period in which glass production was revolutionised.

Last month, the deputy director of the British Museum proposed a Parthenon partnership with Greece that could see the marbles returned to Athens after more than 200 years.

The sculptures – 17 figures and part of a frieze that decorated the 2,500-year-old Parthenon temple on the Acropolis – were taken by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century when he was the British ambassador to the Ottoman empire, and have since been the subject of a long-running dispute over where they should be displayed.

In an interview with the Sunday Times Culture magazine, Jonathan Williams said the British Museum wanted to “change the temperature of the debate” around the marbles.

Williams said: “What we are calling for is an active ‘Parthenon partnership’ with our friends and colleagues in Greece. I firmly believe there is space for a really dynamic and positive conversation within which new ways of working together can be found.”

St. Peter's Birthplace Possibly Discovered By Archaeologists

In a stunning claim, archaeologists believe they have discovered the home of Peter and Andrew, principal followers of Jesus Christ.

A team led by archaeologists Mordechai Aviam and Steven Notley brought to light a large Greek inscription at a basilica of the Byzantine era of 1,200 years ago. The inscription refers to donor "Constantine, the servant of Christ," as well as an intercession naming St. Peter "chief and commander of the heavenly apostles."

Constantine was emperor of Rome (306-337 AD) and was the first Christian ruler of the empire. The inscription is framed by a round medallion that is part of a larger mosaic floor consisting of tiles called "tesserae" that once graced the sacristy of the church. The floor also features swirling patterns of flowers.

A 1,500-year-old mosaic believed to be above Peter and Andrew's home, in Galilee, Israel, in October 2021. Archaeologists had uncovered for the first time mosaic floors from a lost, legendary basilica reportedly built over the house of Jesus' apostles Peter and Andrew in biblical Bethsaida.

As used by Christian writers of the Byzantine, or Roman Empire of the East, the title "chief and commander of the apostles" refers to Apostle Peter.

"This discovery is our strongest indicator that Peter had a special association with the basilica, and it was likely dedicated to him. Since Byzantine Christian tradition routinely identified Peter's home in Bethsaida, and not in Capernaum as is often thought today, it seems likely that the basilica commemorates his house," said Notley of Nyack College in New York City.

The archaeologists have dubbed the site the "Church of the Apostles." The excavation took place in the Betiha nature preserve in Israel, undertaken by Nyack College and Kinneret College of Israel, and was sponsored by the Center for the Study of Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins, the Museum of the Bible, the Lanier Theological Library Foundation, and HaDavar Yeshiva.

Archaeologist Mordechai Aviam cleans the inscription in Galilee, Israel, in August 2022. Archaeologists from Kinneret College in Israel and Nyack College in New York uncovered a large Greek inscription during excavations of what is being called the "Church of the Apostles," a Byzantine period basilica at el Araj/Beit haBek believed to be built over the apostles Peter's and Andrew's home.ZACHARY WONG/ZENGER

It is part of efforts to seek the biblical Jewish village of Bethsaida, and its connections to the modern Beit HaBek (al-A'raj) area.

"One of the goals of this dig was to check whether we have at the site a layer from the 1st century, which will allow us to suggest a better candidate for the identification of Biblical Bethsaida. Not only did we find significant remains from this period, but we also found this important church and the monastery around it," said Mordechai Aviam of Israel who directed the dig.

According to the team, the uncovering of the ancient inscription underscores the belief that the basilica is the same that was described by Bishop Willibald of Eichstätt, an 8th century A.D. Catholic churchman who wrote that the church was built over the house of Peter and Andrew.

While Willibald was traveling from Capernaum on the shore of the Sea of Galilee to the village of Kursi, he overnighted at a place he was told "is Bethsaida from which came Peter and Andrew. There is now a church where previously was their house."

Roman artifacts found at the site appear to support the witness of Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, who wrote his seminal work "Jewish Antiquities" during the First Century of the Christian era that the village of Bethsaida became a Roman polis or town bearing the name Julias.

The uncovered inscription from Church of the Apostles, in Galilee, Israel, in August 2022. Archaeologists from Kinneret College in Israel and Nyack College in New York uncovered a large Greek inscription during excavations of what is being called the Church of the Apostles, a Byzantine period basilica at el Araj/Beit haBek believed to be built over the apostles Peter's and Andrew's home.ZACHARY WONG/ZENGER

According to the Gospel of Matthew, Peter was the first to declare the messiahship of Jesus and was thus considered chief of the apostles. The Catholic Church considers St. Peter the first of a line of popes extant until the present day. The prominence of St. Peter is demonstrated by the Basilica of St. Peter on Vatican Hill in Rome, over the place where he was crucified.

According to the excavators at what they believe is the Church of the Apostles, "It seems his home was likewise commemorated in Bethsaida."

The archaeologists are cleaning up the site and hope to find further inscriptions confirming it as a shrine to the first pope, as well as its connections to ancient Israel.

This story was provided to Newsweek by Zenger News.

Archaeologists Find Entreaty to St. Peter in Early Church by Sea of Galilee

BY HAARETZ

The mosaic more than 1,500 years old cites the church’s donor and a plea for intercession that shores up the case of el-Araj as Bethsaida and the basilica as the Church of the Apostles

An inscription with a plea to St. Peter found at the archaeological site of el-Araj strongly supports the case that this is the lost city of Bethsaida and that the basilica there is the Church of the Apostles, a discovery likely to further buoy Christian tourism at the Sea of Galilee.

The mosaic was filthy, as is the case with inscriptions buried in silt for more than 1,500 years. Cleaning it off in the blistering heat of this summer’s excavation season at el-Araj – right by the Ottoman mansion Beit HaBek – was the season’s highlight, say archaeologists Prof. Mordechai Aviam and Prof. R. Steven Notley.

A mosaic floor found in the remains of what archaeologists believe is a Byzantine church standing over the home of biblical figure St. Peter and his brother, Andrew. (El Araj Expedition)

El-Araj is on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee and isn’t the only candidate for the biblical village of Bethsaida on which the Roman polis of Julias arose. The New Testament is inconsistent about the abode of Peter and his brother Andrew, but the evidence points to Bethsaida as their home, not the fishing village of Capernaum, many researchers say.

Among the highlights at el-Araj, the archaeologists found Roman-period ruins, homes from the Jewish village – and the ruins of a fifth-century Byzantine basilica.

For years, since discovering an ancient church at el-Araj, the archaeologists had dearly hoped to find a dedicatory inscription, as was typical of Byzantine churches. Now they have.

The inscription starts with “Constantine, the servant of Christ.” This refers to the donor to the church, in keeping with Byzantine tradition of dedicatory mosaics. It isn’t a reference to Constantine, the first Holy Roman emperor to embrace Christianity, the archaeologists explain.

Then comes the exciting bit: The inscription goes on to petition the “chief and commander of the heavenly apostles” for intercession, according to Prof. Leah Di Segni of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Prof. Jacob Ashkenazi of Kinneret College in the north.

Who is this chief and commander? Simon Peter was the first to declare that Jesus was the messiah (Matthew 16:16), and so was considered chief of the Apostles, according to tradition. His prominence is demonstrated by the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which was put up over his grave.

Chief and commander of the heavenly apostles is how the Byzantine Christians referred to Peter and only to him, not to any other apostle, say Aviam, professor at Kinneret College, and Notley, professor at Nyack College in New York and the dig’s academic director.

So here we have an inscription, framed with a round medallion made of two lines of black tesserae in the Byzantine style, that all but explicitly mentions St. Peter – in an early church dating to the fifth century in a Roman-Jewish city on the banks of the northern Sea of Galilee.

During the next excavation season in October, the archaeologists are keen to find an inscription to Andrew. Since he’s also supposed to have lived in Bethsaida, the church would presumably have been dedicated to them both.

The dedicatory inscription and plea to Peter (the first pope, in Catholic tradition) were part of the mosaic floor in the church’s sacristy, which, in Byzantine fashion, was decorated with floral patterns. For more information on the inscription we’ll have to wait, but the professors promise that it’s coming.

The mosaic floor of the Church of the Apostles, near the Sea of Galilee.

(Mordechai Aviam/Courtesy)

How Bethsaida was lost

Does this close the case that Aviam and Notley have found the biblical city of Bethsaida, as they have argued since 2017, and the Church of the Apostles – a more recent postulation?
“I would say yes on both,” Notley says. “I think this is clear evidence that the site we’re excavating is the church referred to by St. Willibald [in the eighth century] as the church built over the house of St. Peter and Andrew.”

It bears clarifying that the archaeologists aren’t claiming that the Church of the Apostles really was built on the homes of Peter and Andrew. They’re claiming to have found Bethsaida and the Church of the Apostles, and if it was built in the “right” place, we don’t know.

At least one reason Bethsaida was lost to posterity is that the Sea of Galilee – widely known as Lake Kinneret in Israel – is an inland lake that rises and falls. In fact, the archaeological site was underwater after heavy rain in 2020.

Bethsaida was a humble fishing village by the lake that, according to the Jewish-Roman historian Josephus Flavius, was transformed by local ruler Herod Philip into a polis, a Roman city. In recent years Aviam and Notley have found evidence of both periods of the settlement’s life.

“One of the goals of this dig was to check whether we have at the site a layer from the first century,” Aviam says. And they did.

The snag is that Bethsaida continued to appear in historical records – Christian and Jewish – until the late third century, then it vanished from the record for about 200 years. Research has shown that at about that time, the lake rose. Probably together with other sites around the lake, it was lost to flooding and silting.

There are around 40 centimeters (16 inches) of silt between the Roman layer and the Byzantine layer, thus the Roman city and the Jewish village lie below the silt and the fifth century church above it.

The point is that by the time Christianity took shape and by the time the lake receded, it’s possible that the local memory of where Peter and Andrew lived was gone. Come the fifth century, visiting Byzantine dignitaries could have been misled or otherwise erred in pinpointing where the apostles’ homes were when they had the basilica to be built at that spot.

The newly found inscription can’t speak to the accuracy of the choice of location, but it can lend support to the identification of el-Araj as Bethsaida and the basilica as the Church of the Apostles.

“This discovery is our strongest indicator that the basilica had a special association with St. Peter, and it was likely dedicated to him. Since Byzantine Christian tradition routinely identified Peter and Andrew’s home in Bethsaida, it seems likely that the basilica commemorates their home,” Notley says.

The mosaic thus also strengthens the case that this is the church described by the bishop of Eichstätt, Willibald, who in the eighth century made a pilgrimage to the sites where Christians believe that Jesus performed miracles around the Sea of Galilee. The bishop reported that the church was built over the house of Peter and Andrew. The Hodoeporicon – Willibald’s itinerary in the Holy Land – says he walked from Capernaum to Chorazin (Kursi) via the Church of the Apostles in Bethsaida.

“And [from Capernaum] they went to Bethsaida, from which came Peter and Andrew. There is now a church where previously was their house,” the bishop wrote.

Supporting the case of the church at el-Araj being that church, the archaeologists point out that there are no other ruined Byzantine churches on the shores of the Sea of Galilee in this area, which is now part of a nature reserve.

The inscription also supports Notley’s argument that Peter lived in Bethsaida, not Capernaum. In fact, 1,700 years of Christian tradition always placed Peter’s home in Bethsaida, he notes.

But in 1921 a theory raised by one Father Gaudence Orfali suggests Capernaum instead. There is indeed a Byzantine edifice at Capernaum too (not only at el-Araj) – an octagonal church that isn’t actually a basilica and therefore can’t have been the Church of the Apostles, Notley and Aviam contend.

So the inscription is another nail in the Orfali theory’s coffin.

The excavation is being assisted by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. “The inscription sheds light on the identification of the site with Roman and Byzantine Bethsaida, a place cursed by Jesus because the locals didn’t accept his message,” says Dr. Dror Ben-Yosef, head of heritage in the authority’s northern district, adding that inscription will be of great interest to Christian tourism.

“The dedicatory inscription with the entreaty for prayer by Simon Peter is very important for identifying the Apostle’s association with the Byzantine basilica. It confirms the testimony of the eighth century Bishop Willibald, who visited the church, that Christianity in the Byzantine period commemorated the house of St. Peter at Bethsaida and not at Capernaum,” Notley says.

“In addition, the persistent remembrance of the location of Peter’s home, in light of the recent archaeological evidence for a surrounding earlier Roman period settlement of at least 40 or 50 dunams [12 acres], adds weight to our suggestion that the site of el-Araj/Beit HaBek should be considered the leading candidate for New Testament Bethsaida.”

Who is this Newborn Baby that Jesus Christ is holding in this Orthodox Mosaic?

By Byzantine Tales - Bookstore

In this, of unique beauty and artistic value, mosaic from the Chora Monastery in Constantinople, Jesus stands before an almond-shaped aureola (the radiance of luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages), a classic motif for pictorial backgrounds. Four angels can also be seen above.

His himation and halo are all gold. In his hands he holds/swaddles the soul of the Virgin Mary, who is depicted as a newborn baby after her Dormition.

This is a very interesting and rare composition since it is common to see the Virgin Mary holding Jesus as an infant, a motif that has been artistically inherited from Byzantium to the present day.

The whole composition of the Chora’s Monastery mosaic.

Dormition of the Mother of God

The Dormition of the Mother of God is a Great Feast of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic Churches (except the East Syriac churches). It celebrates the "falling asleep" (passing) of Mary the Theotokos ("Mother of God", literally translated as God-bearer), and her being taken up into heaven (bodily assumption).

It is celebrated on 15 August (28 August N.S. in the Julian Calendar) as the Feast of the Dormition of the Mother of God. The Armenian Apostolic Church celebrates the Dormition not on a fixed date, but on the Sunday nearest 15 August. In Western Churches the corresponding feast is known as the Assumption of Mary, with the exception of the Scottish Episcopal Church, which has traditionally celebrated the Falling Asleep of the Blessed Virgin Mary on 15 August.

Christian canonical scriptures do not record the death or Dormition of Mary. Hippolytus of Thebes, a 7th- or 8th-century author, claims in his partially preserved chronology of the New Testament that Mary lived for 11 years after the death of Jesus, dying in AD 41.

Dormition of the Virgin Mary, 12th century mosaic, in S. Maria dell'Ammiraglio (La Martorana), Palermo.

The use of the term dormition expresses the belief that the Virgin died without suffering, in a state of spiritual peace. This belief does not rest on any scriptural basis, but is affirmed by Orthodox sacred tradition. Some apocryphal writings testify to this opinion, though neither the Orthodox Church nor other Christians accord them scriptural authority. The Orthodox understanding of the Dormition is compatible with Roman Catholic teaching, and was the dominant belief within the Western Church until late in the Middle Ages, when the slightly different belief in the bodily Assumption of Mary into heaven began to gain ground. Pope Pius XII declared the latter a dogma of the Catholic Church in 1950.

Icon of the Dormition by Theophan the Greek, 1392. The Theotokos is depicted lying on a bier, surrounded by the Twelve Apostles. At center, Jesus Christ is shown in a mandorla, swaddling the soul of the Virgin Mary (a red seraph is shown above his head). To either side of him are depicted the Hieromartyrs Dionysius the Areopagite and Ignatius the God-Bearer who, according to tradition, are responsible for transmitting the account of the dormition.