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New Hittite Tablet Shows Striking Correspondences with the Narrative of Homer's Iliad

April 1, 2025

A Trojan Echo in Clay: Hittite Tablet Discovery Reinforces Homeric Traditions

A remarkable new discovery has emerged from the archives of Hittite texts, shaking the very foundations of how we perceive the Trojan War and its historicity. Unearthed and recently published under the auspices of Oxford’s Michele Bianconi, this newly deciphered tablet—Keilfischurkunden aus Boghazköi 24.1—offers what could be one of the most tantalizing written connections between Bronze Age Anatolia and the epic tradition that culminated in Homer’s Iliad.

While previous Hittite records have referenced familiar names—Wiluša for Ilion/Troy, Ahhiyawa for the Achaeans, and figures such as Alaksandu and Attaršiya (possibly Atreus or an early Achaean leader)—this tablet goes further. It not only reinforces the geopolitical dynamics of the Late Bronze Age but also provides an unprecedented literary fragment that suggests a native Luwian poetic tradition dealing with the fall of Troy existed centuries before Homer.

Summary of the Text and Context

The tablet recounts a royal correspondence between a Hittite monarch and an individual named Pariyamuwa, who is likely a regional king or vassal, possibly of Taruiša (Troy). Early lines reference a known figure from Hittite records—Attaršiya of Ahhiyawa—and his sons attacking Taruiša. This narrative is consistent with the CTH 147 ("The Indictment of Madduwatta"), where Attaršiya was already depicted as a formidable Achaean figure operating aggressively in western Anatolia.

What is striking here is not merely the continuity of these geopolitical motifs but the inclusion of a Luwian poetic fragment towards the end of the tablet, apparently describing the fall of Wiluša (Troy). This rhythmical line—“they sing in Luwian (of) the destruction of steep (?) Wiluša: ‘The wrath, o god(dess), si[ng…’”—bears a chilling resemblance to the famous opening of Homer’s Iliad: “Sing, goddess, the wrath of Achilles…”

Analysis: Bridging Hittite History and Homeric Epic

Until now, scholars of Aegean prehistory and oral tradition were left largely to conjecture when linking the Hittite archives with Homer’s poetry. We had political evidence for the existence of a city named Wiluša (Troy), and we understood that Ahhiyawa represented a western power with a Greek-speaking elite. What remained elusive was a literary—or at least semi-literary—bridge.

This tablet offers, for the first time, a suggestion of a poetic corpus in the Luwian language, apparently chronicling the fall of Troy. While fragmentary, the passage demonstrates a rhythm likely intended for oral performance. The dactylic or spondaic structure—coincidentally echoing Homer’s hexameter—could hint at a broader epic tradition within Anatolian courts, possibly older than the 8th-century BCE composition of the Iliad.

The Luwian poetic line referencing divine wrath and destruction further suggests thematic and formal parallels with Greek epic tradition. Given that Troy was an Anatolian city and that the region hosted a bilingual (or even multilingual) population—including Hittites, Luwians, and other Indo-European groups—the existence of a local narrative tradition about Troy's fall is both plausible and now tentatively evidenced.

The Question of Prehistoric Texts and the Trojan War

This discovery reignites a central scholarly debate: Did Bronze Age Anatolia possess its own narrative tradition about Troy's fall, separate from or ancestral to Homeric poetry?

So far, no long-form poetic texts concerning the Trojan War have been found from the Late Bronze Age. While the Mycenaeans left Linear B tablets, these were purely administrative and offered no mythological content. The Hittites, on the other hand, maintained an archive of myths, treaties, and diplomatic correspondence, yet—until now—no definitive poetic narrative about Wiluša's destruction had been identified.

This new tablet changes the game. If this Luwian line is truly part of a broader epic or lament, it suggests that the oral tradition of Troy’s fall was already present in second-millennium Anatolia, possibly passed down among court singers, bards, or scribes long before the Homeric bards of Ionia ever took up the lyre.

Such a tradition could have traveled westward or been inherited by Greek-speaking populations of the coast, eventually morphing into the Iliad. Alternatively, the Iliad may be a Greek reworking of a shared Indo-European mythic repertoire, adapted to the political realities and cultural memories of Iron Age Greece.

Conclusion: Clay Voices and Echoes of Ilion

This Hittite tablet, in its modest clay form, may represent one of the most important finds in the quest for the historical and literary origins of the Trojan War narrative. While the evidence is fragmentary and requires cautious interpretation, it provides an unparalleled glimpse into how the Anatolians themselves—particularly the Luwians—remembered or imagined the fall of Troy.

Was Homer merely echoing songs sung in Wiluša, in a language now mostly forgotten? Were the first bards of Troy Luwian-speaking poets whose verses have only now begun to resurface?

Only time—and more tablets—will tell. But for now, this small fragment from Boğazköy reverberates with a long-lost voice, reminding us that history and myth were always entangled, and that in the clay of forgotten archives, epic still sleeps.

In Anatolia, Aegean Prehistory Tags News, The Archaeologist Editorial Group

The Battle of Kadesh: Ramses II's Propaganda and the Truth from Hittite Texts

October 26, 2024

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS


The Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC) is one of the most famous military events of antiquity, where Pharaoh Ramses II clashed with the Hittite King Muwatalli II over control of Syria and the strategically located city of Kadesh. Although the battle did not result in a clear victory for either side, Ramses II initiated extensive propaganda in Egypt, proclaiming his grand victory. However, the discovery of Hittite cuneiform texts offered a more balanced and detailed picture of the actual outcome of the battle. This article explores Ramses’ propaganda and the historical revelations that emerged from the Hittite records.

The Historical Background of the Battle

The Battle of Kadesh took place during a period of intense geopolitical turmoil in the Eastern Mediterranean. Egypt and the Hittite Empire, the two greatest powers of the time, were in constant conflict over control of the wealthy lands of Syria, which served as a trade and military hub. Pharaoh Ramses II, seeking to assert Egyptian dominance in the region, invaded Kadesh while Muwatalli II assembled a massive army to defend the city.

The Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II (green) bordering on the Hittite Empire (red) at the height of its power in c. 1279 BC.

Egyptian Propaganda: Ramses as the Victor

Upon returning to Egypt, Ramses II launched a robust propaganda campaign to highlight his victory. Numerous temples, including those at Luxor and Abu Simbel, were adorned with impressive depictions of the battle, showing Ramses personally leading his troops to victory and saving the Egyptian army from disaster. Egyptian records, such as the "Poem of Pentaur," emphasized Ramses' bravery and described the battle as a great Egyptian triumph.

The scenes on the temples depict Ramses as a semi-divine leader, almost single-handedly defeating the Hittites. This propaganda aimed to bolster his image as an invincible and mighty monarch, reinforcing imperial power and political stability within Egypt.

Bas-relief of Ramesses II on his chariot during the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II, south wall in the Hypostyle Hall of the Great Temple of Abu Simbel, Egypt.

The Truth Behind the Battle: Hittite Cuneiform Texts

However, the discovery of Hittite cuneiform texts significantly altered the understanding of the battle. Inscriptions found in Hittite archives, especially in the capital Hattusa, provide a very different version of the events. These texts do not mention a clear victory for either side, confirming the view that the battle ended essentially in a stalemate, with heavy losses on both the Egyptian and Hittite sides.

The Hittite texts highlight Muwatalli II's strategic skill, as he managed to lure Ramses and the Egyptian army into a difficult position near Kadesh. Despite Ramses' attempts to regain control of the situation, the battle did not result in a decisive victory, and both armies withdrew exhausted from the battlefield. These sources suggest that the Hittite strategy was highly effective and that the Hittite leadership succeeded in maintaining control over Kadesh and the surrounding area.

The Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty, on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is believed to be the earliest recorded example of a written international agreement.

The Peace Treaty: A Significant Aftermath

Despite Ramses’ propaganda, the failure of the battle to resolve the disputes between the two empires eventually led to a historic peace treaty, the first in human history. The "Treaty of Kadesh," signed a few years later (around 1259 BC), is one of the oldest recorded peace treaties in history and survives in both Egyptian and Hittite writing. The treaty established borders between the two powers, ending the bloody conflicts over control of Syria.

This agreement demonstrates that neither the Egyptians nor the Hittites achieved a total victory on the battlefield, confirming the stalemate revealed by the Hittite texts. The fact that the two great empires resorted to a diplomatic solution instead of prolonged military conflict shows their recognition of the need for stability in the region.

The Role of Propaganda in Ancient Egypt

Ramses II’s use of propaganda is a prime example of ancient rulers' efforts to control the narrative of history and strengthen their power by imposing ideological constructs. The exaggerated depiction of his victory at Kadesh was intended not only to create a heroic image for himself but also to distract the people from the actual balance of power in the region.

It is worth noting that this method was not unique to Ramses. Many other ancient leaders used art and writing to present their military or political successes in the most favorable light, regardless of the true outcome of events.

An ancient bas relief depicting a Hittite chariot in combat. The three-man Hittite chariots were no match for the faster and more agile two-man Egyptian chariots at Kadesh.

The Battle of Kadesh is a remarkable example of how propaganda can shape the perception of history. While the Egyptian version of the battle presents Ramses II as the absolute victor, Hittite texts reveal that the truth was far more complex. The stalemate at Kadesh and the subsequent peace treaty demonstrate that neither the Egyptians nor the Hittites achieved a decisive military victory.

The comparison of these two different narratives offers a deeper understanding of the role of propaganda in ancient times and how leaders sought to define their image in history. The discovery of the Hittite texts reminds us that the truth can be very different from the official version of events.

In Anatolia, Egypt's Dynastic Period Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Snapshot taken from Tolga Örnek's docu-drama on the Hittites

Puduhepa: The Priestess Queen of the Hittite World Who Reorganized and Promoted Religious Syncretism

October 13, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


In the ancient Near East, women often played a secondary role in the political sphere, but there were exceptions who left an indelible mark. One of these exceptions was Puduḫepa, the wife of Hattusili III, king of the Hittites. Puduḫepa was not merely a queen who excelled by her husband's side. With her strong intellect and exceptional leadership abilities, she managed to blend religion and politics, significantly influencing the Hittite world. In this article, we will explore Puduhepa’s biography, her religious and political actions, and the broader impact she had on the events of her time.

The Life of Puduḫepa: From Priestess to Queen

Puduḫepa was born in the city of Lawazantiya, in the heart of Kizzuwatna, a crucial region in southern Anatolia. She was the daughter of the high priest Pentipsharri, who served the goddess Ishtar, the deity of love and war. From an early age, Puduḫepa was raised as a priestess of Ishtar, a role that shaped her spiritual understanding and her ability to navigate both the religious and political realms.

According to tradition, Hattusili III, during one of his military campaigns, met Puduḫepa in Ishtar’s temple and was impressed by her intelligence and spirit. They married, and Puduḫepa found herself in a position of power as queen of the Hittites, alongside Hattusili, who was one of the most powerful monarchs of the era. However, her influence was not confined to her role as queen; she emerged as one of the most active and influential figures in Hittite history.

Snapshot taken from Tolga Örnek's docu-drama on the Hittites

Her Role in Politics: Diplomacy and Peace Treaties

Puduḫepa played a central role in the foreign policy of the Hittite kingdom, particularly in relations with Egypt. She was a key figure in the negotiation of the famous peace treaty between Hattusili III and Pharaoh Ramesses II. This treaty, which is considered one of the first recorded international peace agreements, was solidified by Puduḫepa's diplomatic wisdom and her correspondence with the Pharaoh and the Egyptian court.

Her role was not limited to formal representation; she had a deep understanding of international relations and the need for stability in the region. Through her diplomatic efforts, Puduḫepa laid the groundwork for long-lasting peace, ensuring the safety and prosperity of the Hittites.

The Reorganization of the Hittite Pantheon: The Blending of Religion and Politics

Due to her background as a priestess of Ishtar, Puduḫepa possessed a profound religious sentiment, which was evident in all aspects of her governance. She had a vision to reorganize the religious system of the Hittites and merge the various local and foreign deities into a more unified and coherent structure. This reorganization was not just of religious significance but also political.

Puduhepa makes an offering to the goddess Hepat on a rock-relief at Firaktin. (Tayfun Bilgin)

As the Hittite kingdom was multi-ethnic and multi-religious, Puduḫepa realized that unifying the pantheon could function as a tool for the political unification of the state. She cataloged the deities and elevated royal and state gods to more prominent positions, emphasizing deities that symbolized unity and sovereignty.

This process led to the establishment of an organized and unified religious system that became closely linked to political power. Puduḫepa ensured that the worship of the gods would support and maintain the stability of the Hittite kingdom, while she herself assumed the role of religious mediator, communicating directly with the gods on behalf of the king and the people.

The Legacy of Puduḫepa: A Lasting Mark on Hittite History

Puduḫepa left behind a powerful legacy. Her work as a diplomat, religious reformer, and political leader contributed significantly to the stabilization and strengthening of the Hittite state during Hattusili III’s reign. Her initiatives to unify the pantheon and her broader connection of religion and politics created a strong framework that profoundly influenced the political and religious structure of the Hittites.

Her legacy continued even after her death, as her efforts preserved the Hittite cultural heritage. Her name remained inscribed in records and traditions, and her influence on the reorganization of the religious world laid the foundation for the further development of religious and political thought.

Snapshot taken from Tolga Örnek's docu-drama on the Hittites

Puduḫepa was not just a queen. She was a leading figure who redefined the relationship between religion and politics in the Hittite world. Her political maneuvers and the reorganization of the Hittite pantheon represented a groundbreaking blend of religious devotion and political strategy, creating a legacy that left deep imprints on the history of the Hittites and the broader region.

In Anatolia Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Busts of Greek Mythical Heroes Adorn Turkish Village near Troy

September 8, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


The Spirit of Troy: Ancient Greek Hero Busts Honor Troy’s Legacy in Turkish Village


The influence of Homer’s Iliad continues to resonate across time, inspiring modern-day tributes in unexpected places. In a small village near the ruins of ancient Troy, modern citizens have decided to honor the heroes of this legendary tale by installing busts of the famous Greek and Trojan warriors. Tevfikiye, located a mere kilometer from the site of ancient Troy, has become a living homage to the epic struggle between the Achaeans and the Trojans. Known as the "Troy Observation Terrace" (Truva Seyir Terasi), this unique square now serves as a gathering place where mythology, history, and modern life intersect.

The Mythical Roots: Troy and the Scamander Plain

The village of Tevfikiye offers a panoramic view of the Scamander River plain, the setting for much of the Trojan War as described by Homer. Just beyond the village lies the ancient city of Troy, a site that has been excavated by famed archaeologists such as Frank Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann. As one gazes across this landscape, it is easy to imagine the legendary battles fought between the Achaeans and Trojans, with warriors like Achilles, Hector, and Ajax clashing on these very plains.

Troy, long regarded as one of the most significant archaeological sites, served as a cultural bridge connecting the civilizations of the Mediterranean, the Aegean, and Anatolia. The city’s strategic location made it a hub for trade, migration, and the exchange of knowledge, which ultimately contributed to its wealth and power during the Late Bronze Age.

The Archaeological Troy: Unveiling the City of Homer’s Iliad

Troy VI is widely accepted as the Homeric Troy. Its remains reveal a city of considerable sophistication, with robust fortifications and a palace complex that speaks to its prosperity during the 13th and 12th centuries BC. Troy VI's strategic location allowed it to control vital trade routes, particularly the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles), which linked the Aegean with the Black Sea.

In Homeric epics, Troy is depicted as a city of wealth and influence, and archaeological findings confirm that it was a center of power during this period. The name "Troy" itself appears in multiple sources, from Homer’s Iliad to Hittite texts, where it is referred to as Wilusa or Taruisa. This confluence of names reflects Troy’s dual identity as both a fortified citadel and a bustling lower city.

The towers and walls of Troy VI were constructed around 1300 BC, just decades before the city’s destruction, possibly by a coalition of aggressors, including the Achaeans. Despite its eventual fall, Troy VI thrived for nearly six centuries, embodying the grandeur and complexity of the Late Bronze Age world.

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The Village of Tevfikiye: A Modern-Day Troy Experience

In recent years, Tevfikiye has undergone a transformation. What was once a quiet village has been reimagined as a living tribute to the Trojan era. With its proximity to both the Troy ruins and the modern Troy Museum, Tevfikiye has become an archaeological-themed village. This metamorphosis is part of an initiative launched by the Çanakkale Governor’s Office in 2017 to attract visitors to the area and boost the local economy.

The village square, now named the "Square of Troy," has been adorned with busts of Trojan War heroes, including Achilles, Odysseus, Hector, and Paris. This display not only pays tribute to the Greek and Trojan warriors but also provides a tangible connection to the ancient myths that have shaped the region’s identity.

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The Rich History of Tevfikiye: A Bridge Between Past and Present

The history of Tevfikiye is intertwined with that of Troy. The village was settled by Bulgarian immigrants in the late 19th century, during a period of upheaval following the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878. Many of these settlers found employment working on Schliemann’s excavations at the nearby Troy site. Their homes were built using materials from the excavation, and the village mosque, constructed in 1895, was crafted from stones taken from the ancient city.

Today, the village retains its historical charm, with buildings modeled after Trojan architecture. The village coffeehouse and health center have been renovated to resemble structures from the Troy VI period, and the observatory at the heart of the village is inspired by the palatial architecture of ancient Troy. These efforts have created a unique atmosphere where visitors can step back in time and experience the world of Homer’s epics.

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A Cultural Renaissance: The "House of Troy"

One of Tevfikiye’s most striking features is the "House of Troy," a building designed to evoke the grandeur of the ancient city. Visitors can explore rooms that mirror the architectural style of Troy VI, complete with columns and wall ends that reflect the craftsmanship of the era. A miniature waterfall and a museum dedicated to Trojan history further enhance the village’s charm.

The village’s wedding hall has also been repurposed as a cultural center, offering a space for exhibitions and events that celebrate the rich history of the region. This blending of ancient and modern elements creates a vibrant cultural hub where the past is not only remembered but actively revived.

Tevfikiye, A Living Monument to Homeric Troy

Tevfikiye stands as a testament to the enduring legacy of Homer’s Iliad. Through its careful preservation of ancient traditions and its modern homage to the heroes of the Trojan War, the village has become a place where history and mythology come alive. Visitors can walk among the busts of legendary figures like Achilles and Hector, gaze out over the plains where these warriors once fought, and experience the profound connection between the past and present. As Tevfikiye continues to evolve, it offers a unique glimpse into the world of ancient Troy, ensuring that the epic tales of the Trojan War will continue to inspire generations to come.

In Aegean Prehistory, Anatolia Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mycenaean Terms Found in Phrygian Inscription: Uncovering a Greek-Phrygian Isogloss

September 4, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


The relationship between Greek and Phrygian languages has long intrigued scholars, particularly because of the potential linguistic connections that may hint at deeper cultural and historical ties between these ancient peoples. One of the most fascinating aspects of this relationship is the presence of a prehistoric Greek-Phrygian isogloss, as evidenced by inscriptions and etymological studies. This article will delve into the significance of this isogloss, focusing on the connections between the Mycenaean words wanax (ϝἄναξ) - lawagetas (λαϝαγἐτη) and their Phrygian counterparts, as well as the broader implications for our understanding of the interactions between these ancient cultures.

The Phrygian Inscription and the Midas Monument

A significant piece of evidence for the Greek-Phrygian isogloss comes from an inscription found at the Midas Monument, which dates back to the 8th century BC. The inscription, engraved on the upper left part of the monument and written in a dextroverse (left-to-right) direction, reads as follows:

ates : arkiaevaīs : akenanogavos : midaī : lavagtaeī : vanakteī : edaes.

This text has been translated as: "Attes, the son of Archias, the akenanogavos, made (it) for Midas, the leader (and) the king."

The words "lavagtaei" (λαϝαγέτη) and "vanaktei" (ἄνακτι) appear side by side, providing a direct link between the Phrygian and Greek languages. The term "vanaktei" is particularly notable, as it is derived from the Mycenaean Greek word wanax, which means "king" or "ruler."

The Etymology of Lafagetes and Wanax According to Historical-Comparative Linguistics and Common Indo-European Roots

The word wanax has been the subject of much scholarly debate, particularly regarding its etymology and its potential connections to other Indo-European languages. Until recently, wanax was considered a word of uncertain or unknown origin, with no convincing cognates identified in other languages. However, the research of scholars like Ivo Hajnal has provided new insights into its possible connections with Phrygian.

The etymology of the words lawagetes (λαϝαγἐτης) and wanax (ἄναξ) presents a rich field of study within historical-comparative linguistics, illustrating their deep Indo-European connections. Lawagetes (ra-wa-ke-ta) is derived from the components λαϝός meaning 'army' or 'to gather an army,' and the root hag- (ἄγω), meaning 'to lead or drive' (*leh₂mo-h₂eg-et-). This composite meaning of 'army leader' or 'commander' reflects the sociopolitical role of a leader in an early Greek context. The term wanax, similarly, is traced back to the Mycenaean word wa-na-ka and is often used to denote 'king' or 'ruler.' Its Indo-European roots appear connected to the notion of a leader or protector, with cognates potentially present in other Indo-European languages such as Sanskrit and Phrygian.

The analysis of wanax offers particular intrigue due to its parallel development with other Indo-European terms. According to Hajnal, the word wanax (or more accurately ϝανακτ-ς with the original digamma sound “ϝ”) shares morphological features with the word laϝagetes, both following a productive pattern in ancient Greek word formation. This pattern involves a thematic element and the suffixes (-t- and -s), which can be traced back to older Indo-European linguistic structures. The phonological evolution of wanax and its formation from roots like *h₂eǵ- ('to lead') highlights its meaning as a leader or authority figure, a concept mirrored in Phrygian and possibly even Sanskrit equivalents (*h₂n̥-h₂eg-et-s).

The comparative study of wanax in Greek and its counterparts in other Indo-European languages reveals the common cultural emphasis on rulership and protection. For instance, the Sanskrit word vaṇij- (meaning 'merchant') has been proposed as an etymological cousin to wanax, emphasizing the protector or leading role of figures like Indra, a god associated with kingship and power in early Indo-Aryan society. This comparison not only underlines the structural similarities between these languages but also reinforces the cultural and symbolic significance of leadership across the Indo-European world. As such, the words laϝagetes and wanax serve as linguistic relics of a shared Indo-European heritage, reflecting common themes of authority, protection, and social hierarchy.

Hajnal argues against the possibility of a Greek loanword in Phrygian, pointing to the presence of Phrygian anthroponyms such as Wanaxos, Wanaxon, or Wanaxion, which are formed based on the word wanak(t)s. This suggests a prehistoric isogloss—a shared linguistic feature—between Greek and Phrygian that predates their separation as distinct languages. This isogloss indicates a common linguistic heritage and possibly points to a period of intense interaction or even a shared linguistic ancestry between the Greeks and Phrygians.

The Greek word wanax itself has been linked to other Indo-European languages through various linguistic reconstructions. According to Hajnal, the word likely derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, and its morphology follows the same pattern as other ancient Greek words, such as λαγέτας (a leader or commander), which is itself related to wanax. This connection further strengthens the argument for a prehistoric isogloss and highlights the deep linguistic ties between Greek and Phrygian.

The Broader Implications of the Greek-Phrygian Isogloss

The existence of a Greek-Phrygian isogloss has significant implications for our understanding of the ancient world. First and foremost, it suggests that the Greeks and Phrygians shared more than just a geographic proximity—they also shared linguistic and, by extension, cultural elements. This challenges the traditional view of these cultures as entirely separate and independent and opens the door to new interpretations of their interactions.

Furthermore, the linguistic connections between Greek and Phrygian may also shed light on the broader question of Indo-European migrations and the spread of languages across the ancient world. The isogloss between Greek and Phrygian suggests a period of close contact, possibly during the Bronze Age, when these languages were still in the process of differentiation. This could imply that the Phrygians, who are traditionally believed to have migrated to Anatolia from the Balkans, may have had more prolonged and significant interactions with the Mycenaean Greeks than previously thought.

The Greek-Phrygian Linguistic Connection

The article explores the deep linguistic and historical connections between the Greek and Phrygian languages, two members of the Indo-European family. Scholars suggest that some Neo-Phrygian inscriptions may represent an Achaean Greek dialect, indicating potential linguistic convergence or a shared ancestral language. This relationship is further supported by the broader cultural and linguistic interactions across the eastern Mediterranean, where both languages were spoken in close geographical proximity.

Linguistic evidence reveals that Greek is widely regarded as the closest relative of Phrygian, with numerous shared phonological, morphological, and lexical features, suggesting a possible proto-Graeco-Phrygian stage. However, the fragmentary nature of the Phrygian language and the influence of other ancient Anatolian languages like Lydian and Hittite complicate the task of determining whether these similarities are due to common ancestry or later borrowing. This issue makes it challenging to definitively reconstruct the exact nature of the relationship between the two languages.

The study of Greek and Phrygian has significant implications for understanding the Indo-European language family. If a proto-Graeco-Phrygian language did exist, it could reshape current theories about the spread and development of Indo-European languages. The close relationship between Greek and Phrygian also provides valuable insights into the cultural and linguistic exchanges that occurred in the eastern Mediterranean and Anatolia during antiquity, offering a more nuanced understanding of the linguistic landscape of the region.

In conclusion, the study of the prehistoric Greek-Phrygian isogloss, exemplified by the connections between the Mycenaean word wanax and its Phrygian counterparts, offers valuable insights into the complex linguistic and cultural relationships of the ancient world. As scholars continue to explore these connections, we can expect to gain a deeper understanding of how these ancient peoples interacted, influenced each other, and contributed to the rich tapestry of human history.

In Anatolia, Aegean Prehistory Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis, Archaeology's Greatest Finds

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Phrygian and Greek: A Shared Ancestry or Linguistic Convergence?

September 4, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


The relationship between the Greek and Greek languages has been a subject of scholarly interest for decades. Ancient inscriptions, combined with linguistic analysis, have provided various insights into their potential connections. There is a strong belief among scholars that some Neo-Phrygian inscriptions represent a Greek dialect, specifically an Achaean Greek dialect, which shares common features with Arcadian, Cypriot, and Pamphylian dialects. This observation suggests a level of linguistic convergence or a shared linguistic heritage, potentially due to prolonged contact or even a shared ancestral language. This article explores this complex relationship by examining the historical, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, analyzing key similarities and differences, and considering the implications of these findings.

Historical Context of Greek and Phrygian Interaction

The historical interactions between the Greek and Phrygian peoples are well-documented, especially in the context of ancient Anatolia. Phrygia, located in what is now modern-day Turkey, was an ancient kingdom with close geographical and cultural ties to the Greek world. The Phrygians, known for their rich cultural heritage, were often mentioned in Greek literature and historical records. Ancient Greek authors such as Herodotus and Plato noted similarities between the languages spoken by the two peoples, which has led to ongoing debates among modern scholars.

The Palaeo-Balkanic Indo-European branch based on the chapters "Albanian" (Hyllested & Joseph 2022) and "Armenian" (Olsen & Thorsø 2022) in Olander (ed.) The Indo-European Language Family

The evidence suggests that linguistic similarities between the two languages may not solely be the result of random convergence but possibly due to significant historical interactions. The broader cultural and linguistic interactions across the eastern Mediterranean, including Phrygia, further support the idea of a close relationship between Greek and Phrygian languages. These regions were part of a larger cultural and geographical union during antiquity, which included the eastern Mediterranean and parts of the southern Balkans, where various languages and cultures intersected. This interaction likely contributed to the linguistic similarities observed between Greek and Phrygian.

Linguistic Evidence Supporting a Graeco-Phrygian Connection

Linguistic evidence plays a crucial role in understanding the relationship between Greek and Phrygian. The modern consensus among scholars is that Greek is the closest relative of Phrygian within the Indo-European language family. This view is supported by numerous shared phonological, morphological, and lexical features. For instance, Obrador Cursach’s analysis of 36 isoglosses shows that Phrygian shares 34 with Greek, with 22 being exclusive to the two languages. Such a high degree of shared features strongly indicates a close genetic relationship, possibly even a common proto-language.

Moreover, the Phrygian language exhibits several phonological characteristics that are strikingly similar to Greek. For example, the treatment of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) laryngeals in both languages is nearly identical, suggesting a shared phonological history. Additionally, the presence of similar suffixes and the treatment of certain consonant clusters further point to a deep linguistic connection. Scholars like Lubotsky have also identified specific sound changes in Phrygian that parallel those in Greek, reinforcing the idea of close linguistic kinship.

However, there is also evidence that complicates this picture. If certain Neo-Phrygian inscriptions indeed reflect a Greek dialect influenced by local Anatolian languages, it becomes challenging to determine whether the similarities between Greek and Phrygian are due to common ancestry or are the result of linguistic borrowing. This complexity is further compounded by the influence of other ancient languages in the region, such as Lydian and Hittite, which also impacted Phrygian. These influences could potentially obscure the original linguistic connections between Greek and Phrygian, making it difficult to disentangle inherited features from those acquired through contact.

Reconstructing Proto-Graeco-Phrygian: Evidence and Challenges

Despite the compelling evidence, reconstructing the exact nature of the relationship between Greek and Phrygian remains challenging. One of the primary difficulties is the fragmentary nature of the Phrygian language, which is known only from a relatively small corpus of inscriptions. Many of these inscriptions remain undeciphered or are only partially understood, limiting the amount of data available for analysis. Furthermore, the possibility of borrowing and linguistic convergence due to prolonged contact between Greek and Phrygian speakers complicates the task of distinguishing between inherited features and later innovations.

The inscriptions described as potentially representing a Greek dialect highlight this challenge. If these inscriptions indeed reflect a Greek dialect influenced by local Anatolian languages, it becomes difficult to determine whether the similarities between Greek and Phrygian are due to common ancestry or are the result of linguistic borrowing. These influences could potentially obscure the original linguistic connections between Greek and Phrygian, making it difficult to disentangle inherited features from those acquired through contact.

The Midas inscription over the cornice of the Midas monument. It reads Ates... Midai lavagtaei vanaktei edaes ("Ates... has dedicated [this monument) to Midas, leader of the people and ruler").

Implications for the Study of Indo-European Languages

The study of the relationship between Greek and Greek has broader implications for our understanding of the Indo-European language family. If the hypothesis of a proto-Graeco-Phrygian language is correct, it would suggest that Greek and Phrygian split from a common ancestor later than previously thought. This would have significant implications for the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European language and the understanding of the spread of Indo-European languages across Europe and Asia.

Furthermore, the close relationship between Greek and Phrygian may shed light on the linguistic and cultural exchanges in the eastern Mediterranean and Anatolia during the Bronze and Iron Ages. The idea of a shared linguistic area highlights the importance of considering both genetic and aural features when studying ancient languages. This approach could lead to new insights into the processes of language change and the interactions between different linguistic communities in antiquity.

Map showing places where inscriptions in the ancient Phrygian language have been found. Data source: Bartomeu Obrador Cursach, Lexicon of the Phrygian inscriptions (doctoral dissertation, Barcelona, 2018).

The relationship between the Greek and Phrygian languages is a complex and multifaceted topic that continues to intrigue scholars. The evidence suggests a close connection, possibly even a shared proto-language, but the fragmentary nature of the Phrygian language and the challenges of distinguishing between inherited and borrowed features make definitive conclusions difficult. Nevertheless, the study of Greek and Phrygian offers valuable insights into the linguistic and cultural history of the eastern Mediterranean and the broader Indo-European language family. As new discoveries and analyses emerge, our understanding of this relationship will undoubtedly continue to evolve.

In Anatolia, Greece's Historical Period, Aegean Prehistory Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Çatalhöyük's Volcano Mural: The World’s Earliest Depiction of a Volcanic Eruption?

September 1, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


The discovery of Çatalhöyük, a sizable Neolithic settlement in central Turkey, in the late 1950s captivated the archaeological community. The site, which British archaeologist James Mellaart discovered, provided a remarkable window into early human civilization. Çatalhöyük, dating back nearly 9,000 years, is renowned for its densely packed mud-brick houses, its vibrant wall paintings, and its remarkable collection of figurines and artifacts. Among these findings, one particular mural unearthed during Mellaart’s 1960s excavations has sparked significant debate and intrigue—a painting that might represent the world’s oldest depiction of a volcanic eruption.

The Discovery of a Neolithic Enigma

Could this Catalhoyuk mural, now faded with age, be the world's oldest map?

Keith Clarke/UCSB

The mural in question, discovered on the wall of a structure within this ancient proto-city, caught Mellaart’s attention due to its unique composition. He perceived it to be a town plan for a Neolithic village under the shadow of a twin-peaked volcano that was erupting with ash and lava. This interpretation suggested that the inhabitants of Çatalhöyük had not only witnessed a volcanic eruption but also felt compelled to record this dramatic event on their walls. Mellaart’s hypothesis was revolutionary, proposing that this painting could be the earliest known map and the oldest visual representation of a natural disaster.

However, this interpretation was not without controversy. As the mural became more widely studied, alternative theories emerged. Some scholars argued that the so-called volcano could actually be a stylized representation of a leopard’s skin, a motif found elsewhere at Çatalhöyük. The supposed map of the village they suggested might be nothing more than a geometric pattern, similar to other abstract designs prevalent at the site. This debate highlighted the inherent challenges of interpreting ancient art, where meanings are often ambiguous and open to multiple interpretations.

New Evidence and Renewed Debates

For decades, the debate over the Çatalhöyük mural remained unresolved. The controversy surrounding its interpretation was reignited in the 2000s when modern scientific techniques were applied to the study of nearby geological formations. Volcanologist Axel Schmitt, from the University of California, Los Angeles, became particularly interested in Mellaart’s volcanic mural. Schmitt’s team sought to determine whether Hasan Dağ, the twin-peaked volcano near Çatalhöyük, had indeed erupted during the period when the mural was created.

Schmitt’s approach involved the analysis of pumice samples collected from Hasan Dağ. Using advanced uranium-thorium-helium dating techniques on zircon crystals found within the volcanic deposits, his team was able to establish that the volcano had experienced a minor eruption approximately 9,000 years ago. This timeline closely aligns with the estimated date of the mural, suggesting that the painting could indeed depict a volcanic event witnessed by the people of Çatalhöyük.

An analysis of pumice samples from Turkey's Hasan Dagi mountain confirms the volcano did erupt around 9,000 years ago — within the rough time frame of when the mural is thought to have been painted.

Janet C. Harvey/PLoS ONE

The eruption identified by Schmitt’s team was likely a Strombolian-type event, characterized by relatively small but visually striking explosions. While not a cataclysmic eruption, it would have been a memorable and awe-inspiring spectacle for the Neolithic inhabitants. This scientific evidence provided new weight to Mellaart’s original interpretation, suggesting that the mural could be a depiction of Hasan Dağ erupting—a moment of natural drama immortalized on the walls of Çatalhöyük.

Interpreting the Past, Understanding the Present

The renewed debate over the Çatalhöyük mural underscores the complexities of interpreting ancient art and the challenges of reconstructing the thoughts and beliefs of early human societies. While Schmitt’s findings lend credence to the idea that the mural represents a volcanic eruption, alternative interpretations cannot be entirely dismissed. The image might still be a stylized depiction of a leopard skin or a geometric design unrelated to any natural event.

A reproduction of the mural from a room in Catalhoyuk, a Neolithic settlement in Turkey.

Sarah Murray/Flickr

As Schmitt himself has noted, the people of Çatalhöyük lived in a world vastly different from our own, with a worldview shaped by experiences and beliefs that may be difficult for modern observers to fully comprehend. The mural could represent a blend of observed reality, myth, and symbolic expression, reflecting a cultural narrative that has long since been lost to time.

Tristan Carter, an archaeologist who has worked extensively at Çatalhöyük, supports the notion that a volcanic eruption would have been a significant event for the community. Such an occurrence might have been preserved through oral traditions—songs, stories, and rituals—eventually finding expression in visual form. If the mural does depict a volcanic eruption, it would not only be the earliest known representation of such an event but also one of the first instances of humans attempting to map and understand their environment through art.

The Çatalhöyük mural, whether it depicts an erupting volcano or not, remains a powerful symbol of early human creativity and the desire to document and make sense of the world. It stands as a testament to the ingenuity of our ancestors, who, in the midst of transitioning from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agriculturalists, found ways to express their experiences and environment through visual art. This enigmatic mural challenges us to consider how ancient peoples perceived their world and how they chose to communicate their understanding of it—a question that continues to fascinate and inspire scholars today.

In Anatolia Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Lycian Federation: The First Representative Democratic Federation in World History, The Influence on the U.S. Constitution

August 30, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


From Lycia to America: The Enduring Influence of the First Representative Federation

The Lycian Federation represents one of the most significant political achievements in ancient history, as it was the first representative democratic federation to appear in the world. In its time, Lycia, a region in Anatolia that is now part of southern Turkey, stood out not only for its culture and unique geography but also for its innovative political system.

The Lycian Federation was not merely a union of city-states but a governance system based on proportional representation and citizen participation in decision-making. This unique political model became a source of inspiration for later democratic institutions, including the U.S. Constitution, which adopted elements of Lycian democracy in the formation of the House of Representatives.

The Cultural Landscape of Ancient Lycia

Lycia was a small but powerful region in ancient Anatolia, located on the Teke Peninsula between the bays of Antalya and Fethiye. This area, with its rich history, served as a crossroads for civilizations, from the early Eastern cultures to the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The earliest references to the Lycians appear in the Late Bronze Age, where they are mentioned as a people involved in significant conflicts, such as the Battle of Kadesh, where they fought alongside the Hittites.

The Lycians were known for their fierce sense of independence and resistance to subjugation by more powerful neighbors. Throughout their history, they maintained their identity, even as they were incorporated into larger empires like the Persian, Greek, and Roman. Their culture, while influenced by surrounding peoples, retained many of its distinct characteristics, such as their language and alphabet.

What truly sets Lycia apart is its political system. The Lycians developed a unique form of governance based on representative democracy, which was a pioneering political organization for its time. The Lycian Federation, established around the 2nd century BCE, represents the pinnacle of this development.

The Birth of Lycia's Democratic Federation

The Lycian Federation was founded around 205 BCE and included 23 city-states that collaborated in a federal system of governance. The main feature of this federation was the proportional representation of city-states in a common council known as the Synedrion. In this council, cities sent one, two, or three representatives, depending on their size and importance. The six largest cities of the Federation, including Patara, Pinara, Myra, Olympos, Tlos, and Xanthos, each had three votes.

This system ensured proportional representation and equality among the cities, regardless of size, as smaller cities could join together and send one representative. The Synedrion was responsible for making decisions on significant issues such as war, peace, alliances, and taxation. Each year, the representatives gathered in the Federation's capital, Patara, and elected a leader known as the Lyciarch, who held executive power for the following year.

This federation maintained its autonomy even after being incorporated into the Roman Empire, indicating the strength and resilience of this political system. The Lycians managed to retain a degree of autonomy in their internal affairs, suggesting the effectiveness of their Federation.

This political organization was unique for its time and represents the first known example of a representative democratic federation in history. The way the Lycians developed a system that allowed participation and representation for all the city-states in their region, regardless of size or power, was highly innovative and serves as a model for modern democracy.

Lycia’s Legacy in American Constitutional Thought

The Lycian Federation had a significant influence on the formation of the U.S. Constitution, particularly in the creation of the House of Representatives. Alexander Hamilton, one of the American Founding Fathers, referred to the Lycian Federation in the Federalist Papers, arguing that it was the model of an excellent confederate republic. Hamilton and James Madison incorporated the principles of proportional representation from Lycia into the new U.S. Constitution, recognizing the importance of this system in ensuring democratic participation.

The French philosopher Montesquieu also spoke highly of the Lycian Federation, describing it as the most perfect constitution of antiquity. His studies greatly influenced the American Constitution's framers, who integrated many elements of the Lycian system into the creation of the American federal system.

References to the Lycian Federation by ancient historians such as Herodotus and Livy, as well as modern analyses by scholars, confirm the uniqueness and importance of this political organization. Lycia managed to create a system that not only stood the test of time but also influenced future generations in shaping their democratic institutions.

Hellenic and Roman Influences on Lycian Political Structure

The Lycian Federation was not entirely isolated from the influences of the major civilizations of its time, such as ancient Greek democracy and the Roman Republic. Although Lycia developed its own unique system, the democratic principles adopted by the Lycians drew inspiration from the democratic models of ancient Greece, particularly Athenian democracy. The idea of representation through elected officials and the operation of a parliamentary body had clear parallels with the democratic elements developed in Athens.

The Roman Republic, with its system of elected officials and citizen participation, also served as a model for the Lycian Federation. The Romans, who conquered Lycia, allowed the Lycians to maintain their system, recognizing its value and stability. The continuous presence of Roman officials in the region ensured the influence of Roman political traditions.

However, Lycia managed to incorporate these influences into a system that was authentically its own. The Lycian Federation recognized the need for strong representation and participation while maintaining the independence and autonomy of its cities. The fusion of these traditions and their adaptation to the needs of the Lycians created a unique political system that served as a model for later political institutions.

The Lycian Federation remains an outstanding example of human ingenuity and the ability of people to create and sustain political systems that enhance democracy and freedom. Its legacy continues to live on through the foundations of modern democracies, affirming its invaluable contribution to global political history. Lycia, with its unique system of representative democracy, has left an indelible mark on the course of political thought and practice.

In Anatolia Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

A Depiction of Alexander the Great at the Gordion Museum in Turkey

August 17, 2024

by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


Gordion’s museum in Turkey includes a depiction of Alexander the Great. This representation is inspired by the famous mosaic of Alexander, discovered on October 24, 1831, during archaeological excavations at the House of the Faun in Pompeii. The original mosaic, now housed in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, is one of the most iconic images of Alexander, capturing his youthful vigor and martial prowess. The Gordion Museum’s exhibit serves as a reminder of the site’s connection to Alexander, who, according to legend, cut the Gordian Knot during his campaign in Anatolia.

The Gordion Museum: A Gateway to Phrygian Culture and History

Nestled in the tranquil village of Yassıhöyük in the Polatlı district of Ankara Province, the Gordion Museum stands out as a unique cultural gem. Unlike many museums situated in bustling cities, the Gordion Museum offers a more intimate and contextualized experience. It is located directly adjacent to the archaeological site of Gordion, the ancient capital of the Phrygian kingdom. This proximity to history enhances the museum’s offerings, allowing visitors to immerse themselves in the rich cultural tapestry of ancient Anatolia.

Established in 1963 as an extension of the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, the Gordion Museum was designed to house and display the artifacts unearthed from the nearby archaeological site. Over the years, the museum has expanded to accommodate its growing collection. Recent renovations added a 180-square-meter storage room, a 150-square-meter additional exhibition hall, a laboratory, and a conference room. Additionally, a 5,000-square-meter open-air exhibition area allows visitors to explore larger artifacts and reconstructions of Phrygian structures.

The museum's exhibits are carefully curated to chronicle the development of Phrygian culture. Visitors can view a wide array of Phrygian artifacts, including pottery, tools, and intricate jewelry. Among the most notable exhibits are those related to King Midas, whose tomb and associated treasures are a highlight of the museum. The exhibition extends beyond the Phrygian era, offering a chronological journey through the Hellenistic and Roman periods, complete with a comprehensive coinage section.

The Historical Significance of Gordion

Gordion, the capital of Phrygia, holds a significant place in both ancient history and mythology. The city is perhaps most famously associated with the legend of the Gordian Knot—a seemingly unsolvable knot that was cut by Alexander the Great. This act, according to legend, fulfilled a prophecy that whoever could untie the knot would become the ruler of Asia. Beyond myth, Gordion was a major center of Phrygian culture, which thrived from around the 8th century BCE until its decline following invasions and eventual incorporation into the Roman Empire.

The site of Gordion has yielded a wealth of archaeological treasures, providing invaluable insights into Phrygian society, art, and daily life. The remains of the city include fortifications, residential areas, and monumental tombs, or tumuli, which dominate the landscape. The largest of these tumuli is believed to be the tomb of King Midas, the legendary ruler of Phrygia known from the myth of the golden touch.

Phrygian Archaeological Sites: Preserving an Ancient Legacy

Today, the remnants of Phrygian civilization are preserved across various archaeological sites in central Anatolia, with Gordion being the most prominent. The tumuli around Gordion are particularly significant, as they are the burial sites of Phrygian aristocrats. The most important of these, with a diameter of 300 meters and a height of 55 meters, is the Tumulus of King Midas. Unearthed in 1957, the tomb revealed a wooden structure containing the remains of a man, believed to be Midas himself, along with a wealth of grave goods. After extensive preservation work, the tomb was opened to the public, offering a rare glimpse into Phrygian burial practices.

Other Phrygian sites of interest include the city of Midas (Midasşehir), known for its monumental rock carvings and inscriptions, and the Yazılıkaya rock sanctuary, which features intricate Phrygian carvings dedicated to the mother goddess Cybele. These sites, along with Gordion, form a crucial part of Anatolia’s archaeological heritage, shedding light on a civilization that once bridged the cultures of the East and West.

In Anatolia, Greece's Historical Period Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Kalašma Language Deciphered: A Forgotten Indo-European Language of the Bronze Age Anatolia

August 11, 2024

The Rediscovery of Kalasma: A Glimpse into Anatolia's Multilingual Past

The ancient land of Anatolia, a crossroads of cultures and languages in the ancient world, has once again yielded a remarkable discovery. In 2023, during excavations in Hattuša, the capital of the once-mighty Hittite Empire, archaeologists uncovered a trove of cuneiform tablets that revealed a long-lost language: Kalašma. This discovery, located in the region that is today’s Boğazkale in Turkey, has opened a new chapter in our understanding of the linguistic and cultural diversity that flourished in Anatolia over three millennia ago.

Discovery and Decipherment

The discovery of the Kalašma language is centered around 174 cuneiform tablets found at the excavation site at the foot of Ambarlıkaya in Boğazköy-Hattusha. These tablets, dating back to the Late Bronze Age, were inscribed with a language that was previously unknown to scholars. The language has been identified as part of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family, a group that also includes Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic.

The decipherment of the Kalašma language was a collaborative effort involving several scholars. Professor Daniel Schwemer from the Department of Near Eastern Languages at the University of Würzburg played a key role in the initial transliteration of the texts from cuneiform to the Latin alphabet. His work was further analyzed by linguistics experts, including Professor Elisabet Rieken and Associate Professor Ilya Yakubovitich from the University of Marburg. Their combined efforts have allowed us to begin to understand the language and its significance.

The People of Kalašma

According to the findings, the Kalašma people inhabited a region near what is now the Gerede district of Bolu province in modern-day Turkey. The language of Kalašma, though similar to Luwian, which was spoken in southern Anatolia, represents a unique cultural and linguistic entity within the broader Hittite Empire. The Hittites, known for their vast empire that spanned much of Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, were highly interested in recording rituals and religious practices in the native languages of the regions they controlled. This practice not only reflects the Hittites' respect for local traditions but also their pragmatic approach to governance and control.

Hattuša excavation head Prof. Dr. Andreas Schachner

The Tablets and Their Content

The Kalašma tablets primarily contain texts related to daily life and celebrations, offering a rare glimpse into the everyday practices of this lost culture. While the content of the tablets does not provide groundbreaking historical information, it is invaluable for understanding the multilingual and multicultural landscape of Anatolia around 2000 BCE. The texts reveal that the Hittites, in their interactions with the conquered regions, incorporated local deities into their own pantheon, worshipping these gods in their native languages. This practice was likely intended to integrate these regions more firmly into the Hittite Empire by respecting and preserving their cultural identities.

One particularly intriguing aspect of the Kalašma texts is their religious significance. The tablets often reference rituals and ceremonies conducted in the Kalašma language, underscoring the importance of performing religious rites in a language that was believed to be understood by the gods of that region. The Hittites believed that the gods of Kalašma, like those of other regions, would not understand the Hittite language, hence the need to communicate with them in their native tongue. This practice highlights the deep-rooted belief in the power of language in religious and cultural contexts in the ancient world.

The Broader Linguistic Landscape of Anatolia

The discovery of Kalašma adds to the already complex linguistic tapestry of ancient Anatolia. The region was home to a variety of languages, including Hittite, Luwian, Palaic, and Hattic. The Hittites, in particular, left behind a rich archive of cuneiform texts that include not only their own language but also passages in these other languages. This reflects the diverse cultural influences that the Hittites encountered and absorbed over the centuries.

The significance of the Kalašma language lies not only in its uniqueness but also in what it tells us about the broader interactions between different cultures and languages in ancient Anatolia. The multilingual nature of the region, as evidenced by the variety of languages recorded in Hittite texts, suggests a high degree of cultural exchange and integration. The discovery of Kalašma, therefore, provides new insights into the ways in which the Hittites and their contemporaries navigated and managed this diversity.

The Future of Kalašma Studies

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The publication of the Kalašma texts, led by Professor Schwemer, is set to begin in November 2023. This publication will make the full corpus of 174 tablets available to scholars worldwide, paving the way for further research into this newly discovered language. As more is learned about Kalašma, it is likely that our understanding of the ancient world, particularly the intricate dynamics of language, culture, and power in Anatolia, will continue to evolve.

In conclusion, the rediscovery of the Kalašma language is a testament to the rich and diverse history of Anatolia. It underscores the region’s role as a melting pot of cultures and languages in the ancient world. As scholars continue to study the Kalašma texts, we can look forward to new insights into the lives of the people who once inhabited this fascinating region and the complex web of interactions that shaped their world.

The work ‘Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi (Cuneiform Texts from Boghazköi)’, written by Prof. Dr. Schwemer on the decipherment of 174 tablets, is now available digitally.

In Anatolia Tags The Archaeologist Editorial Group, Studies, News

Archaeologists Uncover Hittite Seal in Büklükale with Death Threat for Breaking Oaths

August 11, 2024

Hittite Royal Seal Unearthed in Turkey Warns: 'Break This, and You Will Die

Excavations at the ancient site of Büklükale, believed to have served as a significant military base for the Hittites, have led to the discovery of a royal seal bearing a stern warning: “Whoever breaks this will die.” This inscription has drawn considerable attention, highlighting the seriousness with which the Hittites regarded their agreements.

Büklükale: A Key Hittite Military Base

Büklükale is situated approximately 100 kilometers southeast of Ankara, along the banks of the Kızılırmak River, near the village of Köprüköy in the Karakeçili district. Archaeological surveys suggest that the site reached its peak during the height of the Hittite Empire, functioning as an essential hub within the empire’s expansive network.

Over the course of 14 years, excavations led by Associate Professor Dr. Kimiyoshi Matsumura have uncovered numerous artifacts from the Hittite period. Among the most remarkable discoveries made during the 2023 excavation season was a cuneiform seal impression dating back to the Hittite Empire.

A Royal Seal with a Deadly Warning

Hittitologists have deciphered the cuneiform inscription on the seal, which reads, “Whoever breaks this will die.” This ominous warning underscores the gravity of the agreements sealed with this stamp and the severe consequences of violating them.

In the context of Hittite law, which typically favored fines or compensation over the death penalty or corporal punishment, the wording on this seal is particularly striking. It suggests the exceptional importance of the agreements it secured, reflecting the high stakes involved in these royal contracts.

Photo: IHA

Associate Professor Dr. Kimiyoshi Matsumura, a faculty member of the Archaeology Department at Kırşehir Ahi Evran University and the head of the Büklükale excavation, emphasized the significance of the find. He noted that Büklükale was a vital city during the Hittite Empire, and the presence of this royal seal, likely used by the king or queen, provides valuable insights into the site's historical importance.

Insights into Hittite Royal Influence

Matsumura explained, “There is cuneiform writing on this seal. The Great King Tabarna (Sovereign King) or Tavananna (Sovereign Queen) writes, ‘Whoever breaks this will die.’” These seals were commonly affixed to contracts, serving as a stark reminder that violations would be severely punished. The use of this seal by the Hittite royalty indicates the close relationship between Büklükale and the Hittite capital of Hattusa, suggesting that this city was deeply integrated into the empire's central power structures.

Photo: IHA

Recent discoveries at Büklükale include Hurrian tablets, which further illustrate the site’s importance. These tablets, associated with religious ceremonies conducted by the Hittite royal family, suggest that the king or queen may have personally visited or resided in Büklükale. This further reinforces the city's prominence within the Hittite Empire.

During the current excavation season, the team also uncovered a terracotta seal impression featuring a motif, found in several fragments. The exact meaning of this seal will be determined after further analysis by experts.

The discoveries at Büklükale continue to shed light on the intricate political and religious connections within the Hittite Empire, offering a deeper understanding of the power and influence wielded by the Hittite royal family.

In Anatolia Tags News

A Comparative Study of Luwian and Cretan Hieroglyphs: Independent Origins or Shared Inspiration?

August 11, 2024

The ancient world is replete with various writing systems that developed independently across different civilizations. Two such systems are the Luwian and the Minoan-Cretan hieroglyphs. The Luwian hieroglyphs emerged in central and southwestern Anatolia around 1400 BCE, used by the Luwian people. In contrast, the Minoan-Cretan hieroglyphs were developed on the island of Crete around 1900 BCE and lasted until about 1600 BCE, representing the first form of writing for the Minoan civilization.

Luwian hieroglyphs were primarily used for inscriptions on stone and metal, serving administrative, ceremonial, and monumental purposes. These hieroglyphs persisted until approximately the 7th century BCE. The Minoan-Cretan hieroglyphs, meanwhile, appeared mainly on seals and other small objects, often used in administrative and possibly religious contexts. They eventually gave way to the Linear A script, which was more efficient for record-keeping and communication.


7 Lost Ancient Languages And Scripts That Have Not Yet Been Deciphered


Luwian logograms

Connections and Interactions Between Luwian and Minoan-Cretan Hieroglyphs

The question of whether the Luwian and Minoan-Cretan hieroglyphs were connected or influenced by each other is complex and multifaceted. The predominant theory is that these writing systems developed independently. Geographically, even though the Luwians and Minoans were not quite distant, no direct evidence suggests significant administrative interaction that could have led to one civilization borrowing or adapting the writing system of the other.

However, the broader context of the ancient Mediterranean, characterized by extensive trade and cultural exchange, raises the possibility of indirect influences. The Minoans had established trade networks that reached as far as Egypt and the Near East, while the Luwians, as part of the broader Hittite cultural sphere, also engaged in widespread interactions. This interconnectedness may have facilitated the sharing of the concept of writing, even if the specific symbols and structures remained unique to each culture.


Who Were the Trojans: Anatolian Civilization or Part of the Mycenaean Greek World?


The Cretan Hieroglyphic table of signs, as suggested in the inscriptions corpus. This figure was uploaded by Artemis Karnava

The Role of Egyptian Hieroglyphs

Given the prominence of Egyptian hieroglyphs, which emerged around 3200 BCE, it is natural to consider their potential influence on other hieroglyphic systems like the Luwian and Minoan-Cretan. The Egyptians had a highly developed system of writing that was widely known and respected across the ancient world. Their hieroglyphs were used in religious texts, monumental inscriptions, and administrative records, and they represented a powerful cultural and intellectual model.

The Minoans, who had established trading relationships with Egypt, likely encountered Egyptian hieroglyphs. While the visual and structural elements of Minoan-Cretan hieroglyphs differ significantly from Egyptian hieroglyphs, the concept of a pictographic writing system could have been an inspirational catalyst. This influence would have been more about the idea of using symbols to represent sounds and meanings rather than a direct borrowing of symbols.


Parna of Anatolia and Greece's Parnassus: Tracing The Linguistic and Cultural Ties Between Carians and Greeks


A map illustrating the late Bronze Age trade in the eastern Mediterranean seaboard as a region of increasing connectivity between the key players Pharaonic Egypt in the south, the Hittite Empire, Mesopotamia, and the Levant to the east, and the Mycenaean Civilization to the west.
by Simeon Netchev.

Independent Development or Cultural Borrowing?

The development of writing systems is often influenced by a combination of independent innovation and cultural borrowing. In the case of Luwian and Minoan-Cretan hieroglyphs, the evidence suggests a predominance of local innovation. Each culture developed a system suited to its specific needs and context. The Luwian hieroglyphs reflect the administrative and ceremonial needs of a land-based Anatolian society, while the Minoan-Cretan hieroglyphs align with the administrative and possibly religious needs of a maritime island culture.

Nevertheless, the ancient Mediterranean was a melting pot of ideas and innovations. The concept of writing itself, as a powerful tool for administration and communication, could have spread through indirect cultural exchanges. The Minoans and Luwians, aware of the writing systems of neighboring civilizations, may have been inspired to develop their own systems to enhance their cultural and administrative capacities. While direct borrowing of symbols is unlikely, the broader idea of writing as a tool for complex societies likely influenced their respective developments.


The three different Writing Systems of Ancient Anatolian languages: Cuneiform, Hieroglyphic, and Alphabetic Texts


In conclusion, while Luwian and Minoan-Cretan hieroglyphs appear to have developed independently, the interconnectedness of the ancient world means that indirect influences and shared ideas played a role in the spread of writing as a concept. Each civilization adapted this concept to fit its unique context, resulting in distinct but functionally similar systems of hieroglyphic writing.

In Aegean Prehistory, Anatolia Tags D, The Archaeologist Editorial Group

The Areyastis Inscription Monument: Unraveling the Mysteries of Old Phrygian Language and Culture

August 10, 2024

by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


The Areyastis Inscription Monument, discovered in the Midas Valley near Eskişehir, Turkey, is a remarkable artifact that offers profound insights into the ancient Phrygian civilization. Carved from limestone in the first half of the 6th century BC, this monument is a significant cultural relic dedicated to the Mother Goddess Kybele, one of the most revered deities in Phrygian religion. The inscription on the monument, written in the Old Phrygian language, is one of only two known Phrygian texts containing more than ten words, making it an invaluable resource for historians and linguists alike.

The monument itself, often referred to as the Arezastin Monument due to the inscription it bears, stands as a testament to the sophisticated craftsmanship and deep religious devotion of the Phrygians. Its discovery has shed light on the linguistic complexities of Old Phrygian, a language that belongs to the broader Anatolian family but remains only partially understood. The inscription’s content, along with its architectural context, offers a window into the spiritual and social dynamics of Phrygian society, highlighting the role of religious leaders and the significance of sacred spaces in their culture.

 

Let’s explore the historical significance of the Areyastis Inscription Monument, examine the translations and interpretations of the text, and discuss the broader implications of this discovery for our understanding of Phrygian language and culture. Through a detailed analysis of the monument and its inscription, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of one of the most important archaeological finds related to the Phrygian civilization.

Historical Significance of the Areyastis Inscription Monument

The Areyastis Inscription Monument is more than just a relic of the past; it is a key to unlocking the mysteries of the Phrygian civilization, particularly their religious practices and linguistic heritage. The monument was dedicated to the Mother Goddess Kybele, who was central to Phrygian worship and widely venerated throughout Anatolia. The niche carved into the monument’s façade likely housed a statue of Kybele, serving as a focal point for religious ceremonies and offerings. This connection to Kybele underscores the monument’s role as a sacred site, where the Phrygians sought to honor their deities and secure divine favor.

The inscription on the monument is especially significant because it is one of only two Phrygian texts with more than ten words, making it an essential resource for scholars studying the Old Phrygian language. The clarity and completeness of the inscription have allowed for more accurate translations and interpretations, contributing to the ongoing efforts to decipher this ancient language. The monument’s inscription, therefore, is not only a religious dedication but also a linguistic artifact that has helped illuminate the structure and vocabulary of Old Phrygian.

Moreover, the Areyastis Inscription Monument is a rare example of Phrygian rock-cut architecture, characterized by its intricate decorative elements and careful craftsmanship. The monument’s design, with its triangular pediment, gabled roof, and detailed friezes, reflects the aesthetic sensibilities of the Phrygian people and their skill in stone carving. The architectural features, combined with the inscription, make the Areyastis Monument a unique and valuable piece of cultural heritage, offering insights into the artistic, religious, and linguistic traditions of ancient Phrygia.

Translations and Interpretations of the Inscription

The inscription on the Areyastis Monument is divided into three distinct sections, each with its own linguistic and directional characteristics. The first section surrounds the triangular pediment and is written in the sinistroverse direction, a common feature in Old Phrygian inscriptions. This part of the text contains a dedication that reads: "Bonok, the akenanogavos, made this Mother-Goddess as his idol. Whoever…" This suggests that Bonok, possibly a high priest or another significant religious figure, was responsible for the creation and dedication of the monument to the goddess Areyastis, also known as Kybele. This dedication highlights the central role of religious leaders in Phrygian society and their influence over sacred spaces and rituals.

The second section of the inscription is located on the main rock above the monument. It features two lines, one written in a dextroverse (left to right) direction and the other in a sinistroverse (right to left) direction, utilizing a boustrophedon style. The translation of this section implies a protective curse or warning: "Whoever puts his own name in this Mother eveteksetey, let him be taken by the Mother-Goddess herself." This curse underscores the sacredness of the monument and the importance of preserving the original dedication. It also reflects the belief in the divine power of Kybele to protect her sanctuaries and punish those who would desecrate them.

The third section of the inscription is found on the side of the monument’s natural frame, turning 90 degrees onto the façade. This part of the text is more concise, stating: "Ataniyen, the ruler X-ed it," which likely refers to a consecration or completion of the monument by a ruler named Ataniyen. This brief but significant line indicates the involvement of political figures in the maintenance and consecration of religious sites, further emphasizing the interconnectedness of religion and governance in Phrygian society. These translations not only provide insights into the religious practices of the Phrygians but also offer a glimpse into the complexities of the Old Phrygian language, which continues to challenge scholars with its unique structure and vocabulary.

Broader Implications for Understanding Phrygian Culture

The Areyastis Inscription Monument is a gateway to understanding the broader cultural and religious landscape of ancient Phrygia. The monument’s dedication to Kybele, the Mother Goddess, reflects the central role that this deity played in Phrygian religion. Kybele was associated with nature, fertility, and protection, and her worship was widespread throughout Anatolia. The prominence of Kybele in Phrygian culture is evident in the care and detail invested in the Areyastis Monument, as well as in the protective curses inscribed on it, which sought to safeguard the sanctity of her shrine.

The monument also highlights the importance of religious leaders in Phrygian society. The inscription credits Bonok, possibly a high priest, with dedicating the monument to Kybele, indicating the significant role that religious figures played in both spiritual and civic life. The mention of a ruler, Ataniyen, further suggests that the Phrygian political elite were involved in religious practices, reinforcing the idea that religion and governance were closely intertwined in Phrygian culture. This intersection of religious and political authority likely contributed to the stability and cohesion of Phrygian society, where sacred spaces were not only places of worship but also symbols of communal identity and power.

Moreover, the Areyastis Inscription Monument offers valuable insights into the linguistic heritage of the Phrygians. The inscription has been instrumental in the partial decipherment of Old Phrygian, providing a clearer understanding of its structure and vocabulary. Despite the challenges posed by the language, such as the presence of words with unknown meanings, the inscription has allowed scholars to make significant progress in decoding Old Phrygian texts. This linguistic breakthrough has broader implications for the study of Anatolian languages and the cultural connections between the Phrygians and other ancient civilizations in the region.

Conclusion

The Areyastis Inscription Monument stands as a testament to the rich cultural and religious heritage of the Phrygian civilization. Its discovery in the Midas Valley has provided scholars with a rare and invaluable resource for understanding the Old Phrygian language, as well as the religious practices and societal structures of the Phrygians. The monument’s intricate design and well-preserved inscription offer a glimpse into the artistic and spiritual life of ancient Phrygia, where devotion to the Mother Goddess Kybele was central to both personal and communal identity.

The translations and interpretations of the inscription reveal the deep reverence the Phrygians had for their deities and the lengths they went to protect their sacred spaces. The involvement of both religious leaders and political figures in the dedication and consecration of the monument underscores the interconnectedness of religion and governance in Phrygian society. The Areyastis Monument is not only a cultural artifact but also a key to unlocking the mysteries of the Phrygian language, contributing to a broader understanding of ancient Anatolian civilizations.

In conclusion, the Areyastis Inscription Monument is a remarkable piece of history that continues to captivate scholars and enthusiasts alike. Its significance lies not only in its historical and religious context but also in its contribution to the ongoing study of the Old Phrygian language. As research continues, the Areyastis Monument will undoubtedly remain a focal point for understanding the complex and fascinating world of the Phrygians, preserving their legacy for future generations.

In Anatolia Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The three different Writing Systems of Ancient Anatolian languages: Cuneiform, Hieroglyphic, and Alphabetic Texts

July 31, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


Ancient Anatolia, a region that encompasses much of modern-day Turkey, was a vibrant mosaic of cultures and languages. The diverse linguistic landscape of Anatolia employed three distinct writing systems: cuneiform, hieroglyphic, and alphabetic scripts. These systems were instrumental in documenting the socio-political, economic, and religious aspects of various Anatolian civilizations. This article delves into the origins, characteristics, and archaeological findings associated with each writing system, highlighting their significance in the study of ancient Anatolia.

Cuneiform Script

Origins and Usage

Cuneiform script, originally developed by the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, was adopted by the Hittites, Palaic, and Luwian languages in Anatolia. This script, characterized by its wedge-shaped marks, was primarily used for administrative and monumental purposes.

Archaeological Findings

  1. The Bogazkoy Archive of Hattusa: One of the most significant archaeological sites is Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite Empire. Excavations have unearthed numerous cuneiform tablets, including legal documents, treaties, and royal correspondence. The Hittite Law Code, discovered at Hattusa, is a vital source of information on the legal and social structures of the time.

  2. Kültepe Tablets: Another notable site is Kültepe (ancient Kanesh), where an extensive archive of Assyrian merchant tablets has been found. These tablets provide insights into the commercial activities and interactions between the Assyrians and local Anatolian populations.

Hieroglyphic Script

Origins and Usage

The Luwian hieroglyphic script is an indigenous Anatolian script used primarily by the Luwians. It was employed for monumental inscriptions and seal impressions, often associated with official and religious contexts.

Archaeological Findings

  1. Yazılıkaya Rock Sanctuary: Near Hattusa, the Yazılıkaya rock sanctuary features numerous hieroglyphic inscriptions depicting deities and royal figures. These inscriptions provide valuable information about Hittite religious practices and iconography.

  2. Karatepe Bilingual Inscription: The site of Karatepe in Cilicia yielded a bilingual inscription in Phoenician and Luwian hieroglyphs. This discovery is crucial for understanding the relationship between the Luwians and the Phoenicians and for deciphering the Luwian script.


Why and when did the Anatolian languages go extinct?


Alphabetic Script

Origins and Usage

The alphabetic script in Anatolia was used for languages such as Lycian, Lydian, Milyan, Carian, Pisidian, and Sidetic. These scripts were influenced by the Greek alphabet and were used primarily for inscriptions and official documents.

Archaeological Findings

  1. The Xanthos Stele: One of the most important Lycian inscriptions is the Xanthos Stele, discovered in Xanthos, Lycia. This stele contains a trilingual inscription in Lycian, Greek, and Aramaic, providing a wealth of information about the linguistic and cultural interactions in the region.

  2. Sardis Inscriptions: The ancient city of Sardis, the capital of Lydia, has yielded numerous Lydian inscriptions, including the so-called Sardis bilingual inscription. These inscriptions, often found on tombs and monuments, offer insights into the Lydian language and its script.

  3. The Letoon Trilingual Stele: Located at the Letoon Sanctuary near the ancient city of Xanthos in present-day Turkey, the Letoon Trilingual Stele offers inscriptions in three different languages: Ancient Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic. Dating back to the 4th century BC, this inscription primarily commemorates the achievements of a local prince named Arbinas. The stele has provided scholars with crucial clues for deciphering the Lycian language.

  4. Mylasa Inscriptions: In Caria, the city of Mylasa has produced several Carian inscriptions. These inscriptions, primarily on tombs and monuments, are crucial for understanding the Carian language and its relationship with other Anatolian languages.

The writing systems of ancient Anatolia are a testament to the region's complex and diverse cultural heritage. Cuneiform, hieroglyphic, and alphabetic scripts each played a significant role in documenting the lives and histories of the Anatolian peoples. Archaeological findings such as the Hittite tablets from Hattusa, the Yazılıkaya inscriptions, and the bilingual stele from Karatepe, along with the Lycian, Lydian, and Carian inscriptions, provide invaluable resources for understanding the ancient civilizations of Anatolia. These discoveries not only enhance our knowledge of the linguistic and cultural dynamics of the region but also underscore the importance of preserving and studying these ancient texts for future generations.

In Anatolia Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Kumarbi and Cronus: Shared Motifs in Near Eastern and Greek Myths

July 30, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


Kumarbi, Cronus, and the Cycle of Divine Succession: A Comparative Mythological Analysis

The connection between the Hurrian-Hittite god Kumarbi and the Greek god Cronus represents a fascinating intersection of mythological traditions, revealing how ancient narratives influenced each other across cultures and epochs. As early as the 1940s, scholars have posited that the myths within the Kumarbi Cycle can be seen as forerunners to those found in Hesiod's Theogony. This article examines the scholarly perspectives and analyses of E. O. Forrer, H. G. Güterbock, H. Otten, Gary Beckman, and others to understand the intricate relationships between these deities and their respective mythologies.

Succession Myths and Divine Power Struggles

The theme of succession among divine rulers is a central motif in both the Kumarbi Cycle and Hesiod's Theogony. E. O. Forrer, in his work "Eine Geschichte des Gotterkonigtums aus dem Hatti-reiche," highlights the thematic similarities in the narratives of Kumarbi and Cronus. Both gods are involved in dramatic power struggles characterized by the overthrow of their predecessors—Kumarbi dethrones the sky god Anu, while Cronus overthrows Uranus. This cyclical nature of divine succession underscores the ancient understanding of the impermanence and transitory nature of power among the gods.

H. G. Güterbock, in "Kumarbi. Mythen vom Churritischen Kronos," further elucidates these themes, emphasizing the parallels in the violent and dramatic conflicts that arise in both mythological traditions. Güterbock draws attention to specific narrative motifs, such as the castration of Anu by Kumarbi, which parallels the act by Cronus against Uranus. These violent acts symbolize the transfer of power and the establishment of new divine orders, reflecting broader Near Eastern traditions of kingship and authority.

The idea of succession is also supported by the similarities in the reigns of Ouranos, Cronus, and Zeus in the Greek tradition, compared to the succession of "kings in heaven" in the Hurrian myths. The common interpretation that kingship is passed from one god to another through acts of violence and usurpation is evident in both mythological frameworks, pointing to a shared cultural motif of divine power struggles.

Birth and Creation Myths: Symbolism and Parallels

The myths involving the birth of new gods from Kumarbi and Cronus are rich with symbolic meaning and narrative complexity. H. Otten, in "Mythen vom Gotte Kumarbi," examines the significant event where Kumarbi, after swallowing Anu's genitals, later gives birth to Teshub from his split skull. This myth not only signifies the continuation of the divine lineage but also the emergence of new forms of power. Otten's analysis highlights the parallels with Greek mythology, particularly the story of Cronus swallowing his children to prevent them from usurping his throne, only to be later forced to regurgitate them.

Gary Beckman, in his study "Primordial Obstetrics: The Song of Emergence," provides a detailed comparison between the birth of Teshub from Kumarbi’s split skull and the birth of Athena from Zeus's head. Beckman suggests that the narrative of Teshub's birth served as a "template" for the Greek myth, indicating a possible influence of Hurrian-Hittite traditions on Greek mythology. This comparison underscores the symbolic importance of birth and creation myths in conveying themes of wisdom, power, and the renewal of divine order.

Furthermore, Beckman expresses skepticism over whether the Greeks received all the shared elements of these myths directly from the Kumarbi cycle. He proposes that these mythological motifs might have belonged to a broader Mediterranean cultural milieu, reflecting a shared heritage of storytelling that transcends specific cultural boundaries. This perspective highlights the fluidity and adaptability of mythological themes across different cultures and contexts.

Cultural Interactions and Influences

The connections between Kumarbi and Cronus are not merely coincidental but reflect broader patterns of cultural exchange and interaction in the ancient Near East. The similarities between the myths of Kumarbi and Cronus, such as the castration of a sky god and the swallowing of a rock in place of a deity, indicate possible direct influences or shared mythological traditions.

Philo of Byblos, a Phoenician author, provides further evidence of these cultural exchanges in his "Phoenician History," which includes mythological elements that echo the narratives involving Kumarbi. Hans Gustav Güterbock has proposed that Philo might have relied on a source forming an intermediate stage between the Kumarbi Cycle and Hesiod's Theogony. However, Albert I. Baumgarten criticizes this position, arguing that the myths involved do not represent intermediary stages but rather different takes on common mythological motifs. He points out that Philo's Phoenician History lacks certain elements present in the Kumarbi Cycle, such as the challenges posed by Teshub to Kumarbi’s reign and the absence of battles against monsters.

Recent research suggests that the episode in Philo's history where Ouranos tasks Dagon with raising Damerous might constitute a non-violent adaptation of the account of Teshub’s origin as the son of both Anu and Kumarbi. This adaptation reflects the dynamic nature of mythological narratives and their capacity to be reinterpreted in different cultural contexts.

Comparative Mythological Framework

The comparative analysis of Kumarbi and Cronus by scholars such as Forrer, Güterbock, Otten, and Beckman contributes to a broader understanding of ancient mythologies and their interconnectedness. The succession myths, birth and creation stories, and broader patterns of cultural exchange reveal a shared heritage of storytelling that shaped the mythological landscapes of the ancient Near East and Greece.

Carolina López-Ruiz, in her analysis, notes that despite the differences, Hesiod's Theogony represents the Greek reception of the Kumarbi Cycle. She points out a closer parallel in an Orphic theogony from the Derveni papyrus, where Zeus castrates Ouranos, swallows his genitals, and becomes impregnated with the cosmos. This narrative better reflects the succession from Anu to Kumarbi, illustrating how mythological motifs were adapted to emphasize different aspects of divine power and creativity.

López-Ruiz also highlights further Orphic myths that include the castration of Cronus by Zeus and the swallowing of Phanes, showing the continued evolution and reinterpretation of these themes in Greek mythology. These adaptations underscore the influence of Near Eastern mythological traditions on Greek religious thought and the broader cultural exchanges that facilitated the transmission of these stories.

Implications for Understanding Ancient Mythologies

The study of the connection between Kumarbi and Cronus has significant implications for our understanding of ancient mythologies. It highlights the importance of cross-cultural comparisons in revealing the shared elements and distinctive features of different mythological traditions. By recognizing common themes and narrative structures, scholars can better appreciate the complexities and nuances of ancient myths and the ways in which they reflect the cultural, religious, and political landscapes of their respective societies.

Moreover, the research on Kumarbi and Cronus underscores the dynamic nature of mythology, where stories and motifs are continually reshaped and recontextualized in response to changing cultural contexts. This fluidity and adaptability of mythological narratives demonstrate the enduring relevance and power of myths in shaping human understanding of the world and the divine.

Conclusion

The connection between Kumarbi and Cronus, as explored by scholars, reveals a rich tapestry of shared themes and narrative motifs that highlight the interconnectedness of ancient mythological traditions. Through the comparative study of succession myths, birth and creation stories, and the broader patterns of cultural exchange, these scholars have provided valuable insights into the complex relationships and influences that shaped the mythologies of the ancient Near East and Greece. This analysis not only deepens our understanding of individual myths but also underscores the universal themes that continue to resonate across cultures and time.

In Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Greece's Historical Period Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Parna of Anatolia and Greece's Parnassus: Tracing The Linguistic and Cultural Ties Between Luwians and Greeks

July 28, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


The Shared Sacredness of the word “Parna” and the Greek toponym “Parnassus”

The intriguing linguistic and cultural connections between the ancient languages of Anatolia and Greece have long been a subject of scholarly interest. One such connection is the term "parna," found in the Luwian and Carian languages, and its potential relationship to the Greek toponym "Parnassus."

The Word “Parna” in Luwian and Carian Languages

Luwian and Carian were ancient languages spoken in what is now modern-day Turkey. These languages are part of the broader Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family, which also includes Hittite. The Luwians and Carians, like their Hittite neighbors, had rich and complex religious traditions. The term "parna" in these languages is interpreted to mean "sacred site" or "holy house," and it appears in various inscriptions and texts, often in contexts that describe sacred places or objects associated with religious worship.

The use of "parna" underscores the significance of certain locations and items in the spiritual practices of the Luwians and Carians. These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the religious life of these ancient peoples, showing how they designated and revered their sacred spaces. The contexts in which "parna" appears often relate to temples, holy objects, or locations that hold particular spiritual importance, indicating a well-developed sense of the sacred.

Furthermore, the widespread use of "parna" in religious contexts highlights the role of language in shaping and expressing cultural and religious identities. By examining how this term was used, scholars can better understand the ways in which the Luwians and Carians conceptualized their sacred spaces and practices, offering a richer picture of their belief systems and societal values.

Parnassus: The Greek Sacred Mountain

Mount Parnassus, located in central Greece, holds a significant place in Greek mythology and religion. It is famously known as the home of the Muses, the goddesses of inspiration in literature, science, and the arts. Additionally, Parnassus is closely associated with Apollo, the god of music, poetry, and prophecy. The sacred site of Delphi, situated on the southwestern slopes of Parnassus, was one of the most important religious centers in the ancient Greek world.

The mountain's significance in Greek culture is reflected in numerous myths and legends. According to one myth, Parnassus was the mountain on which Deucalion and Pyrrha, the Greek equivalents of Noah, landed after a great flood, repopulating the earth. Another legend states that the Corycian Cave on Parnassus was home to the nymphs and a place of oracular prophecy. Such stories underscore the mountain's revered status in Greek spirituality and its role as a nexus of divine activity.

The name "Parnassus" itself has intrigued linguists and historians due to its possible etymological ties to the Anatolian word "parna." This connection suggests that the ancient Greek-speaking population may have inherited or adapted the concept of sacredness from another pre-Greek-speaking native population, maybe related to the so-called Pelasgians, Minoans, or some Anatolian-speaking group that first inhabited the Greek mainland. The similarities between the two words propose a shared or borrowed concept of sacredness that transcends regional boundaries, pointing to the dynamic linguistic and cultural exchanges that shaped ancient beliefs.

Anatolian Influence on Ancient Greek Place-Names: The 'Parnassian' Language Theory

The potential link between "Parna" and "Parnassus" is not merely a linguistic curiosity but may also reflect deeper cultural boundaries between the ancient civilizations of Anatolia and Greece. Throughout history, these regions have been in close contact through trade, migration, and conflicts. Such interactions would have facilitated the exchange of religious ideas and terminology, allowing for a blending of spiritual concepts.

Evidence of these cultural connections is seen in various archaeological finds and historical records. For example, the trade routes even from the Chalcolithic period that connected Anatolia and Greece would have brought not only goods but also ideas and beliefs, fostering a milieu where sacred concepts could be shared and adapted. This blending is reflected in the similarities between the religious practices and terminologies of these ancient peoples, suggesting a common cultural heritage or mutual influence.

The potential etymological link between "parna" and "Parnassus" implies that the concept of sacredness embodied by "parna" could have influenced Greek perceptions of Parnassus as a holy place. This influence is seen in the reverence with which the Greeks regarded Mount Parnassus and its associated myths and religious practices. While direct evidence of linguistic borrowing is scarce, the shared notion of a sacred site suggests a deep and enduring linguistic connection between these ancient cultures.

Scholars have identified an Indo-European substrate language related to Luwian that influenced both ancient Greek and Anatolian languages. This language is considered responsible for the prevalence of place names ending in -ssa and -nda in western Asia Minor and -ssos and -nthos in mainland Greece. The name "Parnassos" in Greece is believed to derive from the Luwian word "parna-" with the possessive suffix "-ssa." Both Hittite and Luwian texts reference a place called Parnassa, indicating a possible connection.

Philologist Martin L. West suggested naming this unattested Anatolian language "Parnassian" and proposed that it represents a group of people who migrated from Thrace to Anatolia and Greece around 2800 BC. The distribution of these place names suggests the language was spoken during the Early Helladic II period.

Despite this, distinguishing between "Parnassian" loanwords and pre-Indo-European substrate words is challenging. Some words, like τολύπη (tolúpē), share features with Anatolian languages but lack Indo-European cognates, implying a non-Indo-European source. Researchers contend that pre-Indo-European settlers from Asia Minor may have introduced pre-Greek substrates, indicating multiple linguistic influences. While many Anatolian-origin words in Greek relate to cultural exchange rather than a substratum, the presence of these terms points to extensive linguistic interactions across the Aegean Sea.

Conclusion

The relationship between the Luwian and Carian term "parna" and the Greek toponym "Parnassus" underscores the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations. The shared concept of sacredness reflects not only linguistic parallels but also the profound cultural exchanges that shaped the religious landscapes of the ancient Mediterranean world. As scholars continue to explore these connections, we gain a deeper understanding of how ancient peoples perceived and revered the sacred spaces that defined their spiritual lives.

In unraveling these connections, we see a testament to the rich tapestry of human history, where languages and cultures intermingle and sacred concepts travel across regions and epochs. The study of "parna" and "Parnassus" offers a glimpse into the spiritual life of ancient civilizations and the ways in which they articulated and celebrated the divine, reminding us of the enduring legacy of these ancient traditions in our own cultural and religious practices today.


References

  • Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek.

  • Finkelberg, Margalit (2006). Greeks and Pre-Greeks: Aegean Prehistory and Greek Heroic Tradition.

  • Furnée, Edzard J. (1972). Die Wichtigsten Konsonantischen Erscheinungen Des Vorgriechischen: Mit Einem Appendix Über Den Vokalismus.

  • Mihaylova, Biliana (2012). The Pre-Greek Substratum Revisited.

  • Mylonas, George E. (1962). The Luwian Invasions of Greece.

  • Palmer, Leonard Rober. (1965). Mycenaeans and Minoans.

  • Renfrew, Colin (1998). Word of Minos: The Minoan Contribution to Mycenaean Greek and the Linguistic Geography of the Bronze Age Aegean.

  • West, Martin L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth.

In Anatolia, Aegean Prehistory, Greece's Historical Period Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Hittite Monuments: A Digital Gateway to Hittite Heritage

July 18, 2024

Unveiling the Mysteries of the Hittite Civilization: A Journey through Hittite Monuments

The Hittite civilization, one of the great ancient powers of the Near East, has long fascinated historians and archaeologists alike. Spanning a vast territory that includes modern-day Turkey and parts of Syria, the Hittites left behind a rich tapestry of cultural and architectural achievements. Central to our understanding of this enigmatic civilization are the monuments they constructed—imposing structures that stand as silent witnesses to their engineering prowess and artistic sensibilities. The website "Hittite Monuments" emerges as an invaluable digital resource, meticulously cataloging these ancient marvels and offering a comprehensive view into the Hittite world.

A Digital Archive of Hittite Heritage

"Hittite Monuments" is a treasure trove for anyone interested in the ancient Near East. The website provides detailed visual and textual documentation of numerous Hittite and Neo-Hittite monuments. Its extensive database covers a wide array of archaeological sites, each entry offering a window into the architectural and cultural achievements of this ancient civilization.

Visual Documentation

One of the standout features of "Hittite Monuments" is its extensive collection of photographs. Each monument is meticulously documented with high-quality images that capture the intricate details of Hittite artistry. From the grandiose city gates adorned with warrior reliefs to the sacred temples dedicated to their pantheon of gods, the site provides a visual feast for those eager to explore Hittite craftsmanship. These images are not merely supplementary but are central to understanding the stylistic and symbolic elements characteristic of Hittite architecture.

Geographical and Historical Context

The Hittite Empire's vast expanse means that their monuments are scattered across a wide geographical area. "Hittite Monuments" does an excellent job of situating each site within its geographical and historical context. Whether it's the famed city of Alacahöyük with its sphinx gate or the impressive rock reliefs of Yazılıkaya, the website provides detailed descriptions and maps that help visitors locate and understand the significance of each monument. This geographical cataloging is essential for appreciating the widespread influence of the Hittites and the regional variations in their architectural styles.

Educational Resource

For scholars, students, and enthusiasts of ancient history, "Hittite Monuments" serves as a vital educational tool. The site offers in-depth descriptions of each monument, including information on their discovery, archaeological excavations, and interpretations of their historical significance. This makes it an invaluable reference for academic research and a fascinating resource for those with a casual interest in ancient civilizations.

Key Sites and Highlights

Some of the notable sites featured on "Hittite Monuments" include:

  • Alacahöyük: Known for its impressive city gate adorned with sphinxes, Alacahöyük is one of the most significant Hittite sites. The website provides a detailed look at its architectural features and historical background.

  • Yazılıkaya: This open-air sanctuary is famous for its rock reliefs depicting the Hittite gods. "Hittite Monuments" offers a comprehensive guide to these carvings, explaining their religious and cultural context.

  • Hattusa: The capital of the Hittite Empire, Hattusa, is extensively covered, with detailed entries on its numerous temples, gates, and palaces.

Bridging the Gap between Past and Present

One of the key contributions of "Hittite Monuments" is its role in bridging the gap between past and present. By digitizing and disseminating information about these ancient structures, the website ensures that knowledge and appreciation of Hittite culture are not confined to academic circles but are available to a broader audience. This democratization of information allows people from all walks of life to explore and learn about the Hittite civilization, fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of our shared human heritage.

Interactive and User-Friendly Experience

The website is designed with user engagement in mind. Its interactive features, such as detailed maps and virtual tours, provide an immersive experience that goes beyond mere text and images. Visitors can explore the monuments in a virtual environment, gaining a sense of their scale and grandeur. This interactive approach not only enhances the learning experience but also makes the exploration of ancient sites more accessible to those who may never have the opportunity to visit them in person.

Contributions to Academic Research

For researchers and academics, "Hittite Monuments" offers a wealth of data that can support various fields of study, from archaeology and history to art history and cultural studies. The detailed descriptions and high-resolution images allow for close examination of the monuments, enabling scholars to conduct detailed analyses and comparisons. Furthermore, the website's comprehensive bibliography and references provide valuable starting points for further research, fostering academic collaboration and knowledge sharing.

Preservation and Conservation Efforts

In addition to its educational and research contributions, "Hittite Monuments" plays a crucial role in the preservation and conservation of Hittite heritage. By documenting and sharing images and information about these monuments, the website helps raise awareness of their cultural and historical significance. This awareness is essential for advocating for the preservation and protection of these sites, many of which are vulnerable to natural and human threats.

Expanding Horizons

Looking to the future, "Hittite Monuments" has the potential to expand its scope even further. By incorporating new technologies such as augmented reality (AR) and 3D reconstructions, the website could offer even more immersive and engaging experiences. Additionally, collaborations with museums, universities, and cultural institutions could lead to the development of educational programs and exhibitions, bringing Hittite culture to an even wider audience.

Conclusion

"Hittite Monuments" is more than just a website; it is a comprehensive digital archive that captures the essence of the Hittite civilization. Through its meticulous documentation and presentation of Hittite and Neo-Hittite monuments, the site serves as an invaluable resource for education, research, and preservation. It brings to life the architectural and cultural achievements of the Hittites, offering a window into a civilization that has shaped the history of the Near East.

As we continue to uncover and explore the depths of our ancient past, resources like "Hittite Monuments" remind us of the enduring legacy of human creativity and ingenuity. By preserving and sharing this legacy, we ensure that future generations can continue to learn from and be inspired by the achievements of those who came before us. In this way, "Hittite Monuments" not only honors the Hittite civilization but also contributes to the ongoing story of human history.

In Anatolia Tags D, The Archaeologist Editorial Group

Illustration by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Common Mythological Motifs Between Typhon and Illuyanka

June 25, 2024

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis


Myths of Chaos and Order: Exploring the Parallels Between Typhon and Illuyanka

The comparison between Typhon and Illuyanka reveals deep-rooted connections between Greek and Hittite mythologies. The seminal work by Walter Porzig in 1930, "Illuyankas and Typhon," drew significant attention to the striking parallels between these mythological figures, highlighting the shared themes and narrative structures that suggest a common background.

Typhon: The Greek Monstrous Challenge

Typhon, in Greek mythology, stands as one of the most formidable adversaries of the Olympian gods. According to Hesiod in "Theogony," Typhon was born from Gaia and Tartarus, intended to avenge the defeat of the Giants and Titans. His birth was a cataclysmic event, designed to disrupt the divine order established by Zeus. Typhon's challenge to Zeus represented the ultimate test of the Olympian ruler's authority, with the very cosmos hanging in the balance.

According to Hesiod, the conflict between Zeus and Typhon is a titanic struggle that shakes the very fabric of the universe. Zeus, armed with his thunderbolt, ultimately prevails, casting Typhon into Tartarus. This victory symbolizes the triumph of order over chaos, a recurrent theme in Greek mythology. Various sources, including Homer and later poets like Pindar and Aeschylus, expand on this myth, adding layers of complexity and regional variations to Typhon's narrative.

In alternative accounts, such as the one found in the "Homeric Hymn to Apollo," Typhon is presented as a son of Hera, produced in a cave in Cilicia. This version emphasizes Typhon's monstrous nature and his confinement in a liminal space, further associating him with the ancient and enigmatic forces that the Olympian gods sought to control. The motif of Zeus's temporary defeat and subsequent recovery of his "sinews" highlights the cyclical nature of myth, where even the greatest gods face challenges that reaffirm their power through overcoming adversity.

Illuyanka: The Hittite Serpent of Chaos

In Hittite mythology, Illuyanka is a serpentine dragon that embodies chaos and disorder, much like Typhon. The myth of Illuyanka, preserved in cuneiform tablets found at Hattusa, the Hittite capital, unfolds in two primary versions. Both versions involve the storm god Tarhunna (or Teshub) facing and ultimately overcoming Illuyanka, often with the aid of trickery and assistance from other deities.

In the first version, Tarhunna, after an initial defeat, seeks the help of the goddess Inara. She devises a plan involving a banquet to lure Illuyanka out of his lair, enabling Tarhunna to bind and kill the dragon. This narrative echoes the Greek myth in its depiction of the storm god's struggle against a serpentine embodiment of chaos, requiring not only brute strength but also cunning to achieve victory.

The second version introduces the motif of bodily mutilation and restoration, with Illuyanka stealing Tarhunna's eyes and heart. Tarhunna's son, born to a mortal woman, marries Illuyanka's daughter and retrieves the stolen organs as part of a marriage arrangement. This version culminates in a final battle where Tarhunna, now restored, kills Illuyanka but at the cost of his son's life, adding a tragic dimension to the myth. This motif of bodily dismemberment and recovery parallels Zeus's temporary loss of power to Typhon and the subsequent restoration facilitated by allies, emphasizing the themes of sacrifice and regeneration.

The sky god kills the dragon, Illuyanka. Behind him is his son, Sarruma. The twisting body of the snake is depicted in undulating lines with human figures sliding along Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara, Turkey

Georges Jansoone self-photographed

Shared Themes and Narrative Structures

The myths of Typhon and Illuyanka exhibit several shared motifs that suggest a common mythological framework. Both Typhon and Illuyanka represent primal chaos, challenging the divine order established by the storm gods, Zeus and Tarhunna. The struggle between these gods and their serpentine adversaries symbolizes the perennial conflict between order and chaos, a theme prevalent in many mythological traditions.

One significant motif is the initial defeat of the storm god, which underscores the formidable nature of the adversary and sets the stage for a dramatic comeback. In both myths, the storm god requires assistance to overcome the chaos monster—Zeus receives help from Hermes and Aegipan, while Tarhunna is aided by Inara and Hupasiyas. This collaborative effort highlights the interconnectedness of divine forces in maintaining cosmic order.

Another common element is the use of trickery and cunning to defeat the monster. In the Hittite myth, Inara's banquet lures Illuyanka into a vulnerable position, while in the Greek myth, Zeus's allies help him regain his sinews. This theme of cunning complementing strength underscores the multifaceted nature of divine power.

The motif of bodily mutilation and restoration is also prominent. Illuyanka's theft of Tarhunna's eyes and heart and their subsequent recovery mirror Typhon's temporary incapacitation of Zeus by removing his sinews. The restoration of these vital organs or powers symbolizes the reestablishment of order and the resilience of the divine order against chaos.


The Multilingual Bogazköy Archive: Over 25,000 Cuneiform Tablets Containing 8 Different Languages!


Influence and Interpretation

The parallels between Typhon and Illuyanka have significant implications for understanding the transmission and transformation of mythological themes across cultures. The close similarities suggest a shared mythological heritage rooted in ancient traditions, reflecting common concerns and cosmological views.

Walter Burkert and Calvert Watkins have extensively studied these connections, also highlighting the Indo-European poetic formulas that underpin these myths. Watkins, in his work "How to Kill a Dragon," reconstructs the underlying narrative structures that reveal a deep-seated cultural continuity between Greek and Hittite myths. These studies illuminate the ways in which mythological motifs were adapted and transformed to fit the specific cultural and religious contexts of the Greeks and Hittites.

The influence of Near Eastern mythologies on Greek myth, particularly in the context of Typhon and Illuyanka, underscores the dynamic interplay of cultural exchange in the ancient world. The geographic and cultural interactions between the Hellenes and the Hittites, facilitated by regions such as Cilicia, provided fertile ground for the blending and reinterpretation of mythological themes. This cross-cultural fertilization enriches our understanding of ancient mythologies as interconnected rather than isolated traditions.

The comparison between Typhon and Illuyanka reveals a tapestry of shared mythological motifs that transcend cultural boundaries. The narratives of these monstrous adversaries reflect deep-seated themes of order versus chaos, divine struggle, and the resilience of cosmic order. Through the detailed examination of these myths, scholars like Walter Porzig, Walter Burkert, and Calvert Watkins have illuminated the intricate connections between Greek and Hittite mythologies, offering a glimpse into the shared heritage of Near Eastern mythological traditions.

These myths, rich in narrative complexity and symbolic depth, continue to captivate and inform our understanding of ancient cultures. They remind us of the universal human fascination with the forces that shape our world and the enduring power of myth to convey profound truths about the human experience.

In Greece's Historical Period, Anatolia Tags Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Proto-Anatolians: From the Southern Caucasus or the Balkans?

June 1, 2024

The origin of the Proto-Anatolians is a longstanding debate among historians and archaeologists. In 2020, Petra Goedegebuure, an associate professor of Hittitology at the University of Chicago, delivered a lecture titled "Anatolians on the Move: From Kurgans to Kanesh" at the Oriental Institute, which reignited interest in this topic. The lecture explored two primary theories: the eastern route through the Caucasus, proposed by Marija Gimbutas, and the western route through the Balkans, advocated by David Anthony. This article aims to provide a critical overview of Goedegebuure's ideas and the evidence supporting each route.

Traditional literature often emphasizes the impact of western peripheries, but the origin of Common Anatolian, and thus Proto-Anatolian, remains elusive. This uncertainty arises from the fragmented nature of available documents, hydrotoponymic studies, and hypothesized language contacts. These factors complicate our understanding of the pre-classical linguistic landscape of the Near East. By examining these elements, we can begin to infer the most likely migration routes of Proto-Anatolians.

Hattians and their Influence on Hittite Culture

The cultural integration of the Hittites and Hattians is a well-documented phenomenon. However, Goedegebuure suggests that the influence of the Hattian language on Hittite was relatively limited. For instance, there are only about 30 assured Hattian loanwords in Hittite, as noted by Tischler. Additionally, Oettinger demonstrated that the suffix -el in Hittite has an Indo-European origin, contrasting with the Hattian suffix -il (i-), which appears only in personal names or lexical borrowings. These linguistic details highlight the minimal direct influence of Hattian on Hittite.

Goedegebuure proposes that the Hattian language underwent a shift due to the presence of a large, subordinate immigrant group that adopted Hattian imperfectly. This group, possibly speaking an early form of Indo-European, merged with Hattian society but retained many features of their original language. This scenario explains the grammatical discrepancies and the lack of extensive lexical borrowing in Hittite. The subordinate position of this group likely contributed to their imperfect bilingualism and the eventual dominance of their native dialects in regions like Kaneš/Neša.

Evidence of Early Indo-European Presence

The presence of Indo-European names in Colony period documents from various Anatolian sites, such as Kültepe, Boğazköy, and Alişar, indicates an early Indo-European influence in Central Anatolia. For example, the name Ḫattuša, found in both Mari and Kültepe letters, suggests Indo-European settlers in northern Central Anatolia. The city name Amkuwa, with its Indo-European variant Akuwa, further supports this early presence, as the Hattian name Ḫanikku is absent from colonial period records. These toponyms imply that Indo-European groups settled in Central Anatolia before the rise of the Hittite kingdom.

The term nuwa’um, used by Assyrians to refer to non-Assyrians, likely included Proto-Luwians. This term reflects early encounters with Luwians and later extended to all Central Anatolians. The fact that Assyrian merchants used nuwa’um to describe their trade partners, who were present in key Hattian cities like Ḫattuš and Alişar, indicates a significant Indo-European presence in these areas. This evidence aligns with the theory of early Indo-European settlement and cultural integration in Central Anatolia.

Palaeolinguistics and Cultural Insights

Palaeolinguistic studies and archaeological findings provide additional insights into Proto-Anatolian culture. One significant aspect is the role of horses and chariots. Unlike other ancient Indo-European branches, the horse did not play a crucial part in Hittite rituals. However, the Proto-Anatolian language retained the Indo-European word for horse, suggesting cultural continuity with earlier groups. The use of chariots, a later specialization, shows less consistency with Indo-Tocharian terminology, indicating different development paths.

Agriculture and viticulture also offer clues about Proto-Anatolian origins. Proto-Anatolians did not share the same limited farming vocabulary as Late Proto-Indo-Europeans, suggesting a pastoralist subsistence economy. The Indo-Anatolian term for grapevine implies settlement near wild vines, but it does not distinguish between eastern and western expansion routes. The lack of evidence for wine cultivation among Proto-Anatolians supports the view that they were not native to regions like Anatolia or the southern Caucasus, where viticulture was more common.

Population Genomics and Migration Patterns

Recent advancements in population genomics provide new perspectives on the origins of Proto-Anatolians. Goedegebuure's interpretation of genetic data has been critiqued for not fully integrating the latest findings in ancient DNA research. Studies have shown that genetic ancestry in the Aegean and Anatolia includes eastern (Iran/CHG-like) components, arriving after the 5th millennium BC but not necessarily indicating a steppe origin. Bronze Age Anatolian samples show continuity with earlier local populations, challenging the idea of a significant steppe migration.

Conversely, genetic studies of Balkan populations reveal steppe ancestry predating the Yamnaya culture. This evidence supports a western migration route for Proto-Anatolians. Balkan Chalcolithic samples, with contributions from steppe ancestry, align with the theory of migration from the west. The presence of steppe-related ancestry in Balkan and Anatolian samples further supports this hypothesis. The complex nature of ancient migrations and genetic admixture makes it difficult to pinpoint a single origin, but the western route appears more plausible.

Conclusion

While the debate on the origin of Proto-Anatolians continues, current evidence leans towards a western origin. Genetic data from the Balkans supports migration waves of Suvorovo chiefs, placing Proto-Anatolian speakers in contact with Anatolian cultures from the mid-5th millennium BC. This scenario allows for the infiltration and integration of Proto-Anatolian speakers into Anatolia over time. Although both eastern and western routes remain possibilities, the western route, supported by genetic and archaeological evidence, seems more likely. Further research in population genomics and palaeolinguistics will continue to shed light on this complex migration history.

  • References

  • Lazaridis, I. et al. (2017). "Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans." Nature. Available at: Nature.

  • Anthony, D. W. (2007). "The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World." Princeton University Press. Summary available at: Princeton University Press.

  • Goedegebuure, P. (2008). "Central Anatolian languages and the history of the Hittite and Luwian languages." Journal of Language Contact. Summary available at: Journal of Language Contact.

  • Watkins, C. (2001). "Hittite and Indo-European Studies." Journal of Indo-European Studies. Available at: JIES.

  • Tischler, J. (1979). "Hethitisches Etymologisches Glossar." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Oettinger, N. (1999). "Indo-Europeanization of Anatolia." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Thomason, S. G., and Kaufman, T. (1988). "Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics." Available at: Amazon.

  • Klinger, J. (1996). "Die Hethitische Literatur." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Melchert, H. C. (2003). "Language in Hittite and Luwian Cultures." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Soysal, O. (2002). "Hattian Influence on Anatolian Religion." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Arbuckle, B. S. (2009). "Horses and Chariots in the Ancient Near East." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Massa, M. (2016). "Kura-Araxes Cultural Expansion." Available at: ResearchGate.

  • Bachhuber, C. (2008). "The Iconography of Kura-Araxes Cattle Burials." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Zimmermann, T. (2008). "Wheel Models in Early Bronze Age Anatolia." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Anthony, D. W. (2019). "New Research on Proto-Indo-European." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Damgaard, P. de B. et al. (2018). "The Genetic Prehistory of the Greater Caucasus." Nature. Available at: Nature.

  • Feldman, M. et al. (2019). "Ancient DNA sheds light on the genetic origins of early Iron Age Philistines." Science Advances. Available at: Science Advances.

  • Arbuckle, B. S. (2009). "Zooarchaeology and the Interpretation of Faunal Remains." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Sagona, A. (2013). "The Archaeology of the Caucasus: From Earliest Settlements to the Iron Age." Cambridge University Press. Available at: Cambridge University Press.

  • Renfrew, C. (1991). "Before Babel: Speculations on the Origins of Linguistic Diversity." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Kristiansen, K. (2017). "The Archaeology of Europe’s Earliest Farmers." Available at: ResearchGate.

  • Heyd, V. (2007). "Bell Beaker Settlements and Social Organization." Available at: Academia.edu.

  • Balanovsky, O. (2015). "Paleogenomics of the Caucasus." Available at: ResearchGate.

  • Reich, D. (2018). "Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past." Pantheon Books. Available at: Amazon.

  • Olalde, I. et al. (2018). "The Beaker Phenomenon and the Genomic Transformation of Northwest Europe." Nature. Available at: Nature.

  • Kaniewski, D. et al. (2011). "Environmental Roots of the Late Bronze Age Crisis." PLOS ONE. Available at: PLOS ONE.

In Anatolia Tags The Archaeologist Editorial Group

Why and when did the Anatolian languages go extinct?

May 28, 2024

The Extinction of Anatolian Languages: A Historical Overview

The ancient Anatolian languages, once the cornerstone of linguistic diversity in what is now modern Turkey, present a fascinating study of linguistic evolution and extinction. These languages, part of the Indo-European family, included well-documented tongues such as Hittite, Luwian, and Lycian, as well as others like Palaic, Pisidian, and Sidetic. This article delves into the historical backdrop, factors contributing to their decline, and the eventual disappearance of these languages by the dawn of the first millennium CE.

Historical Context

The Anatolian languages were first attested in the early second millennium BCE, with Hittite texts dating back to around 1650 BCE. Hittite, emerging from the ancient capital of Hattusa, became one of the earliest Indo-European languages documented through cuneiform records. Alongside Hittite, Luwian and later Lycian, Carian, and Lydian languages played significant roles in the region's socio-political and cultural milieus.


The Enigmatic Pre-Greek Linguistic Substrate: Proto-Greek, Proto-Anatolian, Or Non-Indo-European At All?


These languages thrived during the era of the Hittite Empire, which dominated Anatolia until around 1200 BCE. The collapse of the Hittite Empire, part of the broader Late Bronze Age Collapse that affected several ancient civilizations, marked the beginning of the decline for these languages. The ensuing period saw a fragmentation of the region into various Neo-Hittite and Aramaean states, where Indo-European, Semitic, and other language influences began to intermingle.

Decline and Displacement

Political and Economic Shifts

The end of the Hittite centralized state led to significant socio-political changes that directly impacted the use and status of the Anatolian languages. As smaller kingdoms and polities emerged, they often adopted or adapted the more dominant languages of the region's new powers, such as Phrygian and, later, Aramaic.

Cultural and Linguistic Assimilation

The spread of Greek culture and language following the conquests of Alexander the Great significantly altered the linguistic landscape of Anatolia. Greek became the lingua franca of the Hellenistic world, and its prestige and utility in administrative, cultural, and economic contexts led to its adoption at the expense of local languages. This Hellenization process was pivotal in diminishing the presence of native Anatolian languages.


Hittite Are The Earliest Surviving Detailed Bibliographical Entries


Roman and Byzantine Influence

The incorporation of Anatolia into the Roman Empire and the subsequent rise of the Byzantine Empire further entrenched Greek, alongside Latin, in administrative and liturgical use. This period saw the gradual but irreversible erosion of the residual Anatolian languages.

Timeline of Extinction

  • Hittite: Ceased to be used around 1200 BCE with the fall of the Hittite Empire.

  • Luwian: Continued in various forms until the early first millennium BCE, with some hieroglyphic inscriptions persisting in Neo-Hittite states.

  • Lycian, Lydian, and Carian: These languages lasted into the classical period, with Lycian inscriptions evident until around 300 BCE.

By the Roman period, most of the native languages had been replaced or relegated to marginal use, surviving only in remote areas or in limited ceremonial roles until they too faded from everyday use.


Listen To The Sound Of The Hittite Language!


Conclusion

The extinction of the Anatolian languages was not an abrupt event but a gradual process influenced by a confluence of external invasions, internal disruptions, and cultural transformations. The ascendance of Greek and later Latin marked the final phases of a complex linguistic transition. Today, the study of these languages offers invaluable insights into the ancient civilizations of Anatolia and their interactions with neighboring cultures. The remnants of these languages, preserved in stone and clay, continue to be a primary source for understanding the pre-classical and classical heritage of Anatolia, reflecting a time when it was a crossroads of civilizations in the ancient world.

In Anatolia Tags The Archaeologist Editorial Group, D
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