Photo: Department of Excavations and Researchs

In ancient Syedra: a unique mosaic with the 12 labors of Heracles depicted on a single panel found

August 4, 2022

During the excavations in the ancient city of Syedra in the Alanya district of Antalya, approximately 164 square meters of floor mosaic depicting the 12 labors of the mythological hero Heracles (Hercules) were unearthed.

The discovery of the ancient mosaic was announced with a post made today from the official social account of the Department of Excavations and Researchs.

The remains of the ancient city of Syedra are located near Alanya, Turkey’s most famous tourist destination. The ancient city is 20 km east of the city center.

Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University Faculty of Letters, Department of Archeology Faculty Member and Head of the Syedra Ancient City Excavations head Associate Professor Ertuğ Ergürer told Anadolu Agency (AA) that they have reached very good archaeological data in the studies they have been carrying out in the historical area since 2019.

Antalya/Alanya Syedra Antik Kenti kazılarımızda, Herakles'in 12 işinin tek bir panoda tasvir edildiği, 22×8 m. ölçülerinde ve Anadolu'da eşsiz olduğu değerlendirilen taban mozaiği ortaya çıkarıldı. Restorasyonu sürüyor. @muzeler_dairesi @AntalyaValilik @UniversiteKmu @ttkgovtr pic.twitter.com/rPbNYMKXu8
— Kazılar ve Araştırmalar Dairesi Başkanlığı (@kazardb) July 25, 2022

Stating that the mosaic is very special artistically, Ergürer continued as follows:

“We thought it was unhealthy to fully reveal our mosaic that we discovered in 2019 for that period. After the necessary preparations, we started to unearth our mosaic on the theme of ‘Heracles’ towards the end of 2020. In the mosaic, scenes called the 12 labors of Heracles were depicted and very well preserved,” he said.

Ergürer stated that the mosaic was completely covered with soil in order to preserve it and to obtain better results in future detailed studies.

Expressing that they deemed it appropriate to share with the public that the mosaic was found after the necessary protection measures were taken, Ergürer noted that they continue to work to unearth the mosaic and other artifacts in the area.

Found in the great Roman bath

Pointing out that the historical artifact unearthed in the great Roman bath in the ancient city has no similar, Ergürer said:

The fact that the figures are made in human dimensions also stands out as the only example. In this sense, we are faced with a unique mosaic. The well-preserved mythological scenes in the mosaic add importance to the work.

Assoc. Dr. Ertuğ Ergürer stated that the floor mosaic, which is 7.9 meters in width and 21.91 meters in length, is considered to have been made in the 2nd century AD and spreads over an area of approximately 164 square meters.

By Leman Altuntaş 25 July 2022, ARKEONEWS

Greece opens to Public Three Underwater Archaeological Shipwreck Sites

August 4, 2022

The underwater archaeological sites that can be visited are the late Roman shipwreck at Telegrafo Nion Sourpis, the Byzantine shipwrecks at Glaros Nion and Kikynthos Amaliapolis.

The late Roman shipwreck at Akrotiri Glaros

The western part of the Cape of Glaros is scattered with anchors mainly from the Middle Byzantine period. A closer study of the concentrations and the condition of some, combined with the concentration of pottery, probably date to the wreck of a large merchant ship of the 12th-13th c. A.D. Its cargo consisted of amphorae carrying wine. The multitude and dispersion of pottery gives the impression of a large cargo and therefore a ship.

Depending on the route, the diving visitor can observe the evolution of anchor types from different eras, the history of the last moments of a shipwreck through its anchors, as well as the combination of the marine environment and the remains of the shipwreck.

Glaros, Western Pagasitic, Byzantine amphora body,
©YPPOA-EEA, photo Matteo Collina Univerità della Calabria –DIMEG

The Byzantine shipwreck in Kikynthos Amaliapolis

Between the 11th and 12th centuries at the entrance of the Pagasitic Gulf, a Byzantine merchant ship was wrecked near the islet of Kikynthos, located to the east of the bay of Amaliapoli. The bulk of the wreck consists of pithos and amphorae. Its location was identified by the Institute of Marine Archaeological Research in 2005.

Today, the diving visitor can observe the remaining fragments of pithos and some amphorae, which constitute the main concentration of the wreck.

Kikynthos, Western Pagasitic, pitho fragments,
©YPPOA-EEA, photo Matteo Collina Univerità della Calabria –DIMEG

The Byzantine shipwreck at Akrotiri Telegrafos

At the bottom of the northeastern shore of Cape Telegrafos are the remains of a ship's cargo from the late Roman period. Its cargo consisted exclusively of trade amphorae. The excavation and study of the amphorae showed that they were carrying wine, garum (a fermented fish sauce which was used as a condiment), fruit and olives, with the main origin of mainland Greece and the Eastern Aegean.

View of Telegrafo’s shipwreck
©YPPOA-EEA, photo Stefanos Kontos

The ship's destination would be one of the ports of the Pagasitic Gulf, to exchange its cargo for grain. Most likely, a rough sea overturned the ship and its cargo was lost at the bottom until it was "recovered" by the research of the Institute of Marine Archaeological Research. The visiting diver can observe the site and the traces of the underwater excavation, where part of the scattered cargo is preserved.

Wreck cargo collection area 9 in Kikynthos. Sections of pithos and amphorae can be distinguished
©YPPOA-EEA, photo Stefanos Kontos

At the Public Information and Awareness Center for the three Visitable Underwater Archaeological Sites, the visitor can have the experience of virtual diving with 3D augmented reality glasses. Thanks to the virtual tour the underwater world of the three wrecks becomes universally accessible, even to those who cannot do natural diving.

The three new underwater archaeological sites, together with the underwater archaeological site of Alonissos, make up a unique underwater archaeological park with a unique diving experience at an international level.

Thessaloniki, Greece: An Entire Underground Ancient City was found During Metro Construction

August 3, 2022

Impressive are the photos of the finds brought to light by the archaeological shovel in Thessaloniki, Greece's 2nd biggest city, during the construction of the local metro facilities.

In 2012, during the excavations carried out at the "Amaksostasio" of the main line of the Metro, in Pylaia, a pre-Cassandrian small town of the 4th century BC came to light. An area of 31 acres was investigated and part of the city was revealed, which was organized with the Hippodamian urban planning system, following the standards of the great cities of Macedonia, Olynthos and Pella.

The numerous finds point to a prosperous settlement with a strong economy and developed socio-political structures. Its great development is placed in the second half of the 4th century. BC, which was however interrupted by the founding of the city of Thessaloniki by Kassandros in 315 BC, when it was abandoned.

Another interesting find is the cemetery of Roman times (2nd -4th century AD) that was investigated in the limits of the Fleming Station and revealed to us aspects of a hitherto unknown settlement, on the outskirts of ancient Thessaloniki.

During the construction works of Thessaloniki METRO, at the stations near Aristoteleion University, the archaeological research revealed a large part of the eastern cemetery of the city, as well as a three-kilometer cemetery Basilica with mosaic floors on the site of an older building. In particular, it brought to light thousands of funerary monuments (3000) which have come to enrich our knowledge so far about the organization and continuous use of the space from the Hellenistic period to Late Antiquity.

The tombs belong to various types, pit-shaped, box-shaped, pot burials, altars, altar-shaped constructions, single or double vaulted, decorated with clay and glass vessels, clay figurines, gold and silver jewelry and coins.

The excavations carried out at the two stations within the historical center of Thessaloniki, the Agia Sophia Station and the Venizelos Station, complete the topographical map of the city, at the level of the main thoroughfare, today's Egnatias Street. The findings outline the urban planning organization of the urban space of Thessaloniki from its foundation to the end of late antiquity.

The city was designed in its lowland parts with the Hippodamian urban planning system. Streets, perpendicular to each other, form building islands with residential and laboratory buildings.

The same design is preserved in Roman times, with small-scale alterations to the building plan. In the 4th c. A.D. the now marble-paved streets are flanked by colonnaded arcades and on either side of them are erected large building complexes with luxurious mosaic floors, wall written decoration, marble cladding and opus sectile. At the same time, to the north of the decumanus, at the junction with the cardo of the Agia Sophia street, a cistern building/nymphaeum was constructed that shows overlapping building phases. A drastic intervention in the urban planning of the city takes place in the 6th century: the marble-paved decumanus is widened, the older buildings are leveled and in their place paved squares are formed at the central crossroads of the city.

Those imposing architectural configurations of the public space - squares, arcades and fountains/nymphaea - along the central streets are the last monumental image of late antiquity.

The excavation research in the two stations of the historical center of Thessaloniki revealed parts of the Byzantine market along the main street, the so-called Avenue or Middle of the Byzantines.

The central cobbled street of Byzantine times was revealed, in the trace of the older decumanus maximus with an average width of 5.5 to 6.5m. New roads with a straight, winding and diagonal course are drawn or existing ones change their course, simultaneously defining the extent of the building islands. The islands of mud-built buildings occupied the public space, the sidewalks and the arcades of late antiquity. These are workshops and shops of a market where jewelry, articles of metalwork, glasswork, ceramics, etc. are produced. Brick constructions, kilns, work benches, together with tools, jewelry making molds, unfinished ceramics, tripods, attest to the productive use of the premises throughout the Byzantine period.

During the Ottoman period, the urban planning changes do not seem to be radical. After all, the building remains were found disturbed by the basements of the buildings of more recent times.

The upper layer found at both stations provided evidence for the urban planning organization of Thessaloniki during the last period of the Turkish occupation (second half of the 19th century CE). marked by urban changes aimed at creating a city designed according to European standards. The buildings they excavated, mainly underground, were found destroyed by the fire of 1917 that burned down the center of Thessaloniki and was the springboard for the design of the modern city.

The stations in the west city are located in the countryside outside the old walls of Thessaloniki. The excavation research carried out in sections by periods, during the years 2009 – 2012, 2016 -2017, when it was completed, supplemented our knowledge over time from the 3rd c. BC until recent times for the spatial development of the peri-urban western zone.

The spatial organization of the area was dictated by two parameters: the passage of the main road, the well-known Roman Egnatia road that connected Thessaloniki with Pella, and the flowing streams. Overlapping gravel and earthen pavements of the road, which reached outside the Golden Gate crossing the Keramisious plain and the cemetery, were located under today's Monastiriou Street.

At the New Railway Station is a bypass and developed along the northern side of this road axis. Organized into clusters it includes a variety of tombs and altar-like structures - usually within burial enclosures, providing spaces for funerary ceremonies and offerings. Marble sarcophagi and luxurious burial buildings of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th c. AD stand out.

The period of use of the necropolis covers a long period from the 3rd century BC. up to the middle of the 4th c. AD, when Christian cemeteries are organized around cores with religious buildings, temples and martyrdoms. Later, and mainly from the 6th c. A.D. sporadic burials continue. which do not constitute an organized cemetery.

The excavation at the station and the entrances of the Democracy Square, on the outskirts of the necropolis, just a few meters outside the western walls, brought to light on either side of the road that led from the countryside to the Golden Gate, large complexes of state wine and oil warehouses (pytheon ) and laboratories of late antiquity.

On the ruins of the python, it was founded in the 5th century a square temple with a funerary addition, storerooms and workshops. At the end of the 6th c. – beginning of the 7th c. the temple and its facilities are completely destroyed and abandoned. Among its hallowed ruins are sporadic burials. Building activity is limited to the south. In the following centuries the area remained undeveloped, not by chance, after all, it was called by the Ottomans Ҫayir, i.e. Meadow or Meadow. As soon as the late 19th c. will regain its commercial character, when inns, shops and warehouses are built on the axis of Monastiriou Avenue.

The Story of The Little Shepherd with his Puppy Statuette, also known as "The Refugee" of the Greek National Archaeological Museum

July 20, 2022

The little shepherd with his puppy housed in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens was found in Asia Minor. The statue is also called "the refugee". A plaster cast of it is also exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Basel.

The statuette was found in 1922 during excavations by the Greek archaeologist Kourouniotis at the archaeological site of the Bouleuterion or Gerontikon of Nyssa. Due to the Asia Minor Catastrophe of the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, the statuette was transported the same year by Kourouniotis to Athens who handed it over to the Archaeological Museum. Since then it also bears the name "the refugee".

The statuette is a Roman copy of the 2nd century, of an earlier original dating back to the early Hellenistic times. It is made of marble and has a height of 63 cm. It shows a small standing shepherd boy lovingly holding a little dog in his arms. The child is wearing a short hooded cape and his legs are bare.

The Greek National Archaeological Museum in Athens.

The motif of the little child is very popular and occurs frequently in Hellenistic and Roman times. Similar statues were used as a vow or tama by wealthy families for the recovery of their child, or as in this case, as a decorative element with a theme of nature and the countryside.

The second version is more likely, since the parents of the depicted little shepherd boy probably would not have had the financial ability to do tama, or on the contrary, if some wealthy shepherds did this tama, they would not have depicted their little child so poor. This little statuette is probably a sample of the real living conditions of the poor people. The depicted child may be a slave or a dependent of some needy lord of ancient times.

The artistic style of the presented subject is known from the beginning of the Hellenistic period. The bucolic poet Theocritos wrote many idyllic verses that subsequently inspired many contemporary and later artists, such as the poet Virgil (Bucolic), or other painters and sculptors. Bucolic artefacts were popular and decorated many houses, mansions and gardens.

'Chroma: Ancient Sculpture in Color', A New Colorful exhibition at the MET (Photo Gallery)

July 11, 2022

Contrary to popular belief, most sculptures in the ancient Mediterranean world were colorful. Paint, gilding, and inlaid materials animated and enlivened marble, bronze, and terracotta figures. Over time, much of that polychromy—the term derives from the Greek for “many colors”—has disappeared, leaving representations of humans, animals, and mythical subjects without their original definition and ornamentation.

Chroma highlights ancient polychromy on works of art in The Met collection and reveals new discoveries of surviving color identified through cutting-edge scientific analyses and in-depth research by the Museum’s curatorial, conservation, scientific research, and imaging staff. The exhibition features a series of striking color reconstructions of major sculptures—created by Vinzenz Brinkmann, Head of the Department of Antiquity at the Liebieghaus Sculpture Collection in Frankfurt am Main, and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann—that convey the brilliance and scope of ancient polychromy. Juxtaposed with original Greek and Roman works depicting similar subjects, the reconstructions are based on the results of advanced photographic and spectroscopic techniques and comparative research of ancient works of art. Also unveiled here is a new reconstruction of an Archaic Greek sculpture of a sphinx in The Met collection, completed by the Liebieghaus team in collaboration with The Met.

This presentation provides a window onto multiple aspects of color on ancient sculpture: the practices and materials used by artists long ago; our methods for identifying and re-creating original polychromy today; the critical role color plays in conveying meaning; and the various ways that people have viewed and understood Greek and Roman polychromy over the centuries.

Photo gallery from Michele Mitrovich, Russian-American Philhellene and PhD student in Bronze Age Aegean Archaeology:

Sardes, or Sardis, was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia, one of the important cities of the Persian Empire and ancient Greece, the seat of a proconsul under the Roman Empire, and the metropolis of the province Lydia in later Roman and Byzantine times.

Thermal Heating used in Ancient city of Sardis

July 5, 2022

The ancient city of Sardis in the western province of Manisa, where gold and silver money was printed and used for the first time in history, has attracted interest for its sewage system and thermal system used for heating in shops set up thousands of years ago.

The Salihli Tourism Association Honorary Chairman Researcher Mustafa Uçar said geothermal heating was used in the Roman era, and that the mathematician Thales, who came to Sardis in 600 B.C., built the sewage system in the city.

“They most likely started using geothermal heating during their reconstruction of the city after the big earthquake in the Roman era. There are small pools in some shops and houses. The Romans provided cold drinking water and thermal hot water for the city in certain hours. Those living in the city made backup for water in their pools,” he said.

“In the same way, in addition to the houses, there are thick water pipes made of baked clay that rise up in the walls in the places where the shops are located. Thermal water passes through these pipes to fill the pool behind the main building of gymnasium. At the same time, they fill the pools of houses and shops. Because the water is in motion, the houses are heated. Sardis was the first city that used thermal water for heating,” said Uçar.

City infrastructure built before Christ

Uçar said the ancient city of Sardis was an important city centuries ago, adding that scientists used to come to the city and were supported by kings.

“In 600 B.C., famous mathematician Miletos Thales came to Sardis and dried up the marshland north of the city. In the present day, the farmers who have found the pipes in their fields tell a story to highlight the richness of people living in that era. The story is that they milked animals in the mountains and sent the milk to the cities through these pipes so the queen could take a milk bath. The pipes found by farmers are the pieces of the sewage and drainage system built by Thales. They poured the marsh water here to the Gediz River and created yielded fields. In short, maybe Sardis is the first city in history whose infrastructure was built in the 600s B.C.,” said Uçar.

Sardis

Situated in the area of Sart in Manisa’s Salihli district, Sardis was home to many civilizations between the seventh century B.C. and the early Byzantine era.

The capital of the Lydian Kingdom in the ancient age, the city became rich thanks to agriculture, stockbreeding, trade and gold mining.

Sardis was also one of the Seven Churches of Revelation that played an important role in the growth of Christianity, while artifacts that have been unearthed there are now displayed at the Manisa Museum.

Source: https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/thermal-...

**Illustration by** **Dimosthenis Vasiloudis**

Aizanoi's Unique Theater-Stadium: Exploring the Confluence of Ancient Culture and Sport

July 4, 2022

BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

In the ancient world, grand structures and edifices served not just as expressions of architectural prowess but also as centers of community, culture, and entertainment. The theater and the stadium were two such central structures, each with their own distinctive purposes and architectural nuances. However, one site stands apart in the way it combines these two unique entities. This place is the Aizanoi, located in present-day Avdarhisar, Turkey, with its spectacular, side-by-side complex of a theater and a stadium, a rare combination that is said to be unique in the ancient world.

Aizanoi: A Cultural Landmark of Antiquity

The Aizanoi, settled around 3000 BC, is a landmark of immense historical significance. The city reached its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD under Roman rule, when many of its most iconic structures, including the theater-stadium complex, were built. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2022, Aizanoi offers an extraordinary glimpse into the past, with the theater and stadium standing as testaments to the city's rich cultural heritage.

Origins and Early Settlements

Aizanoi's beginnings are deeply rooted in the Bronze Age, which extended from about 3300 BC to 1200 BC. The region that would eventually become Aizanoi was inhabited by various cultures during this period. Its favorable geographical position near the River Penkalas (today known as the Kocaçay) offered abundant resources, making it an ideal location for early settlements.

While archaeological evidence from the Bronze Age in Aizanoi is sparse, the area was certainly inhabited during this era. Bronze Age cultures in the region were known for their metalwork, ceramics, and the development of early writing systems. Unfortunately, due to the extensive Roman and later constructions, much of the Bronze Age artifacts and structures in Aizanoi have been lost or remain undiscovered.

*In front of the temple, formerly part of the acroterion , stands a big bust of a female. It seems to have been her that led to the conclusion the temple was dedicated to both Zeus and Sibyl.*
***Author*** *Dosseman*

The Development of Aizanoi

Aizanoi flourished as a city under the Phrygian and, later, the Hellenistic periods. But it reached its zenith during the Roman era, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The city became a crucial economic and cultural hub, known for its production of grain, wine, and wool.

Aizanoi was adorned with grand structures, including temples, bridges, baths, and the unique theater-stadium complex, reflecting the city's prosperity. The Temple of Zeus in Aizanoi, one of the best-preserved temples in Anatolia, showcases the city's significance during this period.

Post-Roman Aizanoi and Modern Rediscovery

Following the decline of the Roman Empire, Aizanoi became part of the Byzantine Empire and later fell under Seljuk and Ottoman rule. Over centuries, the ancient city was largely forgotten and eventually buried under layers of earth until the 19th century, when European archaeologists began to excavate and rediscover its historical significance.

The city was rediscovered by European travelers in 1824 and surveyed and identified between the years of 1830 and 1840. The scientific excavations within Aizanoi were launched in 1926 by D. Krencker and M. Schede on behalf of the German Archeological Institute, and presently the excavations are being carried out by Pamukkale University.

The city of Aizanoi offers a fascinating glimpse into the progression of human civilizations, from its Bronze Age roots to its peak in Roman times. Despite many of its ancient secrets remaining shrouded in mystery, the city's unique architectural gems, like the theater-stadium complex, provide invaluable insights into the cultural and societal practices of antiquity. The ongoing archaeological efforts hold the promise of revealing even more about Aizanoi's significant past.

*At some distance from the temple there are several burial stones and similar monuments displayed. This is a view from that area.*
***Author*** *Dosseman*

Aizanoi's Unique Theater-Stadium Complex

The theater and stadium of Aizanoi are intricately connected structures, built adjacent to each other and separated only by a colonnaded street. This union is rare, as these two types of buildings were typically separate, serving distinctive purposes and catering to different types of crowds.

The theater, a semi-circular structure built in the traditional Roman style, could house approximately 13,000 spectators. Decorated with finely carved stone seats, the theater served as a focal point for cultural and social activities, hosting performances that ranged from tragedies and comedies to musical recitals. The theatrical performances often reflected society's values, fears, and aspirations and played a crucial role in civic life.

Adjacent to this lies the stadium, designed for athletic competitions and games. A long, U-shaped track encloses a field used for various sports, including chariot races, wrestling, and running races. Capable of accommodating up to 20,000 spectators, the stadium's design is influenced by Hellenistic models, aligning with the Greek ideal of a healthy mind in a healthy body.

A masterpiece of architectural design

The theater and stadium that make up the entertainment and cultural complex are situated in Aizanoi's northern region. It represents the significance of the city and the prosperity of its citizens in earlier times. The theater and stadium in Aizanoi were constructed next to one another, creating a complex that is thought to be one of a kind in antiquity. The staging structure divides the two. Excavations and study conducted between 1982 and 1990 revealed that the building's construction began in 160 AD and continued through the middle of the third century AD. Many inscriptions were discovered and restored to their original locations while repairs were being made to the eastern side of the stadium's entrance. The fact that M. Apuleius was named in the inscriptions of the main bridge and made a significant contribution to the construction of this complex is revealed by these inscriptions.

The stadium's seating rows are polygonal, therefore the construction widens in the middle. There is a door on the western side, where it is widest. The only façade of the stadium that faces the theater is a marble-covered wall. This is also the rear of the stage in a theater. The marble fragments may still be seen today in the stadium's north. This façade wall's low pedestal has a Doric design. There are two levels, and the tall Attika floor with an arch is located on top. The theater's stage was adorned with priceless marble ornamentation. Throughout history, there have been numerous earthquakes that caused these decorations to fall upon the seated rows. The building was initially constructed with only one story, according to researchers who looked at the marble carvings on the stage. As the stadium was later expanded, a second storey was constructed. The front of the structure, composed of cut limestone, had a relatively tiny percentage of the marble components that were still in place. These broken marble fragments include sections of a frieze that shows a hunting scene.

According to estimates, the stadium could hold another 13,500 spectators, while the theater could hold 20,000. Yet, the architectural design that allowed them to be built adjacent to one another, forming an entertainment complex, is what makes this dual structure special, not its size. The stage building separates the theater from the stadium, which is next to it. It is a singular solution since archaeologists have not discovered a similar one from prehistoric times anywhere else in the world.

Regrettably, both structures were severely destroyed by the periodic earthquakes. Only a portion of the theater's audience and stage have been retained in this instance. The bottom level of the theater frequently floods in the spring. A intact portion of the wall with carved medallions bearing the names of the winners may be seen on the right side of the stadium when viewed from the main road.

The Significance of the Adjacency

The proximity of these two structures in Aizanoi is an architectural marvel, symbolizing the coexistence of different forms of entertainment in antiquity. The construction of such a complex would have required not just a significant investment of resources but also a certain vision that appreciated and valued both the cultural and physical elements of entertainment.

Moreover, the combined complex could have facilitated larger gatherings and events, including city-wide festivals, where the activities might have ranged from theatrical performances to sporting events. It's a testament to the city's organizational capabilities, suggesting an advanced level of societal development.

The theater-stadium complex of Aizanoi is indeed unique in the ancient world. It paints a vivid picture of a city where art, culture, and athleticism coexisted, enriching society. It's an extraordinary testament to the architectural ingenuity and societal structures of the time, providing insights into a past that celebrated diversity and inclusivity in its entertainment forms.

Today, the Aizanoi stands as a symbol of our collective heritage, a testament to the ancient world's architectural prowess, and an invitation to revisit and appreciate the complexities and grandeur of the past.

The Spectacular Shipwrecks of the island Sapienza in Greece

July 3, 2022

The islets located to the south and west of the coast of Messinia in Greece are not well known to the public, but they hide their own surprises, with Sapienza being the most typical example among them.

Sapienza belongs to the so-called Messinian Oinousses and is located off the southwest coast of Messinia, directly opposite Methoni, near the deepest point of the Mediterranean. No one lives there anymore.

The heart-shaped islet near the lighthouse of Sapienza

Sapienza is located on a maritime route which, since ancient times, was of great commercial and strategic interest, as it connected Italy with the Middle East. At the same time, however, it was also a difficult area, full of strong sea currents, strong winds and difficult rocks. As a result, several shipwrecks occurred on the coasts and off the island, some of which are considered important from an archaeological point of view.

The exceptional findings found in them make the Methoni marine area one of the most important underwater archaeological sites.

The latest sea surveys in the bay of Methoni and the island of Sapienza in Messinia have brought to light unknown wrecks that have been lying on the seabed for hundreds of years, while both known wrecks on the northern shores of the island of Sapienza have been mapped in detail for the first time.

Geoarchaeological investigations were also carried out in the submerged settlement of the Middle Bronze Age that has been identified in the bay of Methoni.

The identified shipwrecks belong to the most recent times and one to the era of the Turkish occupation.

The scanner even showed "metallic targets", probably cannons. The findings will be examined in detail in the future.

The two shipwrecks (along with a third, older one) were found on top of the Bronze Age settlement, part of which is buried under the bottom sand and is ultimately larger than archaeologists had previously thought.

Shipwreck of Sarcophagi

On the neighboring islet of Sapienza, on its northern shores, the two known shipwrecks of Roman times were captured in detail for the first time.

The first is known as the Shipwreck of Sarcophagi because it carried stone sarcophagi. The shipwreck is lying at a depth of 15 m. ts cargo contains a number of stone sarcophagi including their covers. The sarcophagi are intact except for one, which probably ruined when the ship sunk. The sarcophagi measures 2.20 x 0.80 m.
The sarcophagi bear reliefs; their decoration is simple containing floral motifs, boukranion etc. The covers are curved with simple, shaped decoration at the edges. The shipwreck is dated to the 3rd century AD.

Shipwreck of columns

The second is called Shipwreck of Columns because there were some columns made of red granite.

Around 1920, local fishermen located archaeological finds lying on the seabed close to the northern cape of Sapienza (Cape Karsi), opposite the village of Methoni.

In 1925, the lawyer and historian Dionisios Potaris (1860–1922), following fishermen's indications, located and recorded the ‘marbles’, in a distance of 50–60 m from the northern shore of Sapienza and in a depth of 6-7 m. He correctly assumed that the pile of marbles was actually a shipwreck transferring antiquities.

The ‘shipwreck of columns’ lies at a depth of 10 m, close to Cape Spitha. The columns are scattered over an area of 30 m2 and are 10 m away from the edge of the Cape. Parts of the columns are aligned and situated at the seabed, while other parts are scattered in a wider area around them.
34 fragmented, plain, single stone columns were located. Only one of them is intact, with a height of 8 m and diameter of 0.90 m. 28 parts of the columns are concentrated, and the remaining 6 are situated at a distance of 60 m from the rest.

The columns are made of reddish granite, similar to the columns positioned in the Fortress of Methoni. The admiral Francesco Bebo positioned this column in 1493/4 in memory of the recovery of the Fortress by the Venetians. Therefore, it is assumed that the ship sank earlier. This particular type of granite exists only in Egypt and in particular areas of Greece (Xanthi, Kavala, and Mykonos Island).

Studies of the column fragments showed that the columns were part of a building containing 16 columns that was demolished or collapsed.
The ship had these columns as part of its cargo. The fragments of the columns are broken irregularly, and they cannot be connected between them. Some of the columns are circular on top, as they were used for tying up the ships close to the ‘mole’.

The results of the geophysical survey are expected to provide important information on the wider location of their sinking.

In fact, in this particular area, it is planned to become an underwater archaeological park in the future.

Greece: Amazing New Findings from the Antikythera Shipwreck

June 20, 2022

The second period (May 23-June 15, 2022) of the underwater archaeological research on the Antikythera shipwreck, within the five-year program 2021-2025, was successfully completed, linking the contemporary research to the iconic diving operations of 1900-1901.

The research is conducted by the Swiss School of Archeology in Greece under the direction of Dr. Angeliki G. Simosi, head of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Euboea, and Lorenz Baumer, Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Geneva; the field research is under the supervision of the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities, while the project is held under the patronage of H.E. the President of the Hellenic Republic, Ms Katerina Sakellaropoulou.

The main objective of the program is to formulate a clearer and more acute understanding of the ship, its route, its cargo and the wreckage conditions.

The 2022 field research included the relocation of selected sizeable natural boulders that had partially covered the shipwreck area during an event that is under investigation, weighing up to 8.5 tons each; their removal gave access to a formerly unexplored part of the shipwreck. A customized setup consisting of durable rigging, underwater lifting bags and pressurized air supply conceptualized and developed by the Hublot Xplorations team, of the popular Swiss watchmaker.

The most surprising discovery, however, was an unassuming lump of bronze recovered during the first excavation that was later found to be a complex set of interlocking gears capable of predicting the movement of the sun, moon, and several planets, as well as the timing of solar and lunar eclipses years into the future. The Antikythera Mechanism is believed to be an early computer used to plan important events including religious rituals, the early Olympic games, and agricultural activities.

280 Excavation (photo Nikos Giannoulakis)

New findings include:

Plinth of a marble statue including the lower parts of the legs, covered by a thick layer of marine deposits. The first steps of cleaning and restoration of the work of art are soon expected to reveal more details for further analysis.
Marble head of a male bearded figure, bigger than life size, which at first sight can be identified with Herakles (Hercules) of the so-called Farnese type. It most probably belongs to the headless statue of the so-called “Herakles of Antikythera”, inv. no. 5742 of the National Archaeological Museum, which was retrieved by sponge divers in 1900.
Important information is expected to be extracted from two human teeth, discovered in a solid agglomerate of marine deposits together with fragments of copper, wood and other materials typical of a maritime disaster. Genetic and isotopic analysis of the teeth might be useful to deduce information on the genome and other characteristics relevant to the origin of the individuals they belonged to.
Numerous objects from the ship’s equipment, such as bronze and iron nails, a lead collar of a sizeable wooden anchor, and amorphous iron concretion masses covered by marine deposits have been also recovered. X-ray and other specialized laboratory analysis will help to identify their function.

660 Marble base (photo Nikos Giannoulakis)

The exact position and the archaeological context of each finding have been precisely documented during excavation and will be integrated into the 3D model of the site that is under development since October 2022. Samples of sediments have been collected from predetermined areas of the seabed, allowing for a microanalysis that will lead to a better knowledge of the dimensions and precise position of the shipwreck. Together with the ongoing artifacts analysis, the newly applicable microarachaeological practices will enhance the ability to precisely reconstruct the disposition of the wreckage and the conditions of the sinking of the ship sometime during the first half of the 1st century BC.

All latest findings have been safely transported to the facilities of the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, after they have been treated as instructed by the Conservation Department of the Ephorate.

300 Excavation (photo Nikos Giannoulakis)

The field research has been directed by Alexandros Sotiriou, associate researcher of the University of Geneva. The scientific personnel was additionally manned by Carlo Beltrame, professor at the University Ca’Foscari of Venice, Dr. Elisa Costa, researcher at that same university, Orestes Manousos (MA) and Dr. Isaac Ogloblin, and the specialized divers Haralambos Mitrou, Dimitris Romios, and Nikolas Giannoulakis who was also engaged with underwater photography utilized during 3D modeling. Four members of the Underwater Missions Unit of the Hellenic Coast Guard, Aris Machairidis, Dimitris Hatziaslan, Dimitris Kiosis and George Lytrivis daily also participated at the field work. Technical support was provided by the members of the Hublot Xplorations team Mathias Buttet, Michel Blumenthal, Aloïs Aebischer and Diego Carven and laboratory equipment for on-site analyses has been provided by the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Geneva (Laboratory of Crystallography and Department of Earth Sciences).

The diving architect of the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities, Aikaterini Tagonidou, supervised all fled work activities on behalf of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports.

As in former years, the project has been on the profit of the supply ship “Typhoon”, provided by the A. C. Laskaridis Charitable Foundation. The coordination with its crew was led by Rear Admiral (retired) Alexandros Palatianos.

The main supporters of the research program are the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation and the Swiss watchmaker Hublot. The research is also funded by the Nereus Research Foundation, which was established in Geneva with a main purpose to support the Antikythera shipwreck research program. Telecommunications were supported by COSMOTE.

Special thanks are due to Mr. Panos Laskaridis and the mayor of Kythera and Antikythera, Efstratios Charchalakis, for their continuous support, as well as to the residents of the islands of Antikythera for their hospitality.

Source: http://antikythera.org.gr/2022/06/20/2888/...

The Spectacular Lycian Rock-Hewn Tombs: A Testament to Unique Architecture

June 3, 2022

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Nestled along the picturesque Turquoise Coast of southwest Anatolia (what is modern-day Turkey) and eastern Greek islands, the ancient Lycian civilization has left a breathtaking legacy carved into the very face of the landscape. The Lycian rock-hewn tombs, dating back to the 4th century BC, are a testament to the exceptional artistry and engineering prowess of this once-thriving society. These tombs, adorned with intricate facades and boasting extraordinary architectural designs, offer a glimpse into the rich history and culture of the Lycians, who considered their final resting place as important as their lives.

The Lycian Civilization

The Lycians were a unique civilization that inhabited the region now known as the Teke Peninsula in southwestern Turkey. They were an independent and proud people, with their own language and writing system, known as Lycian script. The Lycians were a seafaring people, known for their fierce resistance against invaders and their well-developed democratic system. They existed from around 2000 BC until they were eventually assimilated by the Greeks and the Romans.

The region's rugged terrain, with its numerous bays and natural harbors, provided natural defenses against invaders and enabled the Lycians to maintain their independence for centuries. The Lycian language belonged to the Luwian subgroup of the Anatolian language family. It is primarily known through inscriptions found on various monuments and artifacts. The Lycians used their own unique script, derived from the Luwian hieroglyphic script, which was later adapted into a more simplified alphabetic system.

Around 200 BC, the Lycian language vanished and was replaced by ancient Greek. Although the Lycian language became extinct, many of its inscriptions have been deciphered, offering valuable insights into Lycian society and culture.

The Lycians were known for their well-developed democratic system, which was organized into a federation of city-states referred to as the Lycian League. Each member city had its own local government and was represented in a central assembly, which made decisions on matters of common interest, such as defense and foreign policy. This political structure allowed the Lycians to maintain a certain level of autonomy and resist external threats, despite their relatively small size.

Lycian religion was polytheistic, sharing many gods and goddesses with neighboring civilizations such as the Hittites and Greeks. Some of the primary deities worshiped by the Lycians included Leto, Apollo, and Artemis, who were revered as protective and benevolent figures. The Lycians also had their own indigenous gods, such as the mountain god Sandas and the goddess Kubaba. Religious practices included temple worship, animal sacrifices, and elaborate burial rituals, as evidenced by the numerous rock-hewn tombs found in the region.

Lycian art and architecture were heavily influenced by neighboring cultures, such as the Greeks and Persians, while still maintaining a distinct Lycian style. The most iconic remnants of Lycian architecture are the rock-hewn tombs, which showcase a variety of styles, including house-style, temple-style, sarcophagus, and pillar tombs. Other notable examples of Lycian architecture include the ancient cities of Xanthos, Myra, and Patara, which feature well-preserved ruins, including temples, theaters, and city walls.

Lycian tombs differ from Hellenistic tradition in that they frequently blend in with cities, demonstrating Lycia's ties to eastern traditions, whereas in Hellenistic culture, the dead were buried outside of livable areas (often flanking main roads into the cities).

Lycian Rock-Hewn Tombs: A Unique Architectural Marvel

The Lycian rock-hewn tombs are carved directly into the sheer cliff faces and rock formations of the region, combining the natural beauty of the landscape with human artistry. These tombs come in various styles, reflecting the architectural diversity of the Lycian civilization.

House-style tombs: These tombs resemble traditional Lycian houses, with a rectangular shape and a pitched roof. They often feature intricately carved friezes and ornamental details, such as geometric patterns, animals, and mythological scenes.
Temple-style tombs: Inspired by ancient Greek temple architecture, these tombs have a distinct pediment, columns, and a porch-like structure. The best example of this style is the Amyntas Rock Tomb in Fethiye, which offers a stunning view of the city and the surrounding bay, the Royal Tomb at Pinara and the Painted Tomb at Myra. This temple-style tomb is not exclusive to Lycia and can be found in Caunos (some impressive examples can be found in the town of Dalyan) and other regions of Anatolia.
Sarcophagus tombs: These tombs are characterized by a free-standing sarcophagus, often elevated on a pedestal or platform. The sarcophagus itself is elaborately decorated with reliefs and inscriptions, while the tomb's roof imitates the curved shape of a traditional Lycian wooden coffin.
Pillar tombs: Unique to Lycian architecture, these tombs consist of a tall, slender pillar with a sarcophagus placed on top. The most famous example is the Harpy Tomb in Xanthos, where the sarcophagus is adorned with relief carvings of mythical creatures called Harpies.

The Purpose and Symbolism of the Tombs

The Lycians believed that their deceased ancestors played a crucial role in their lives and their connection to the afterlife. The rock-hewn tombs were designed to honor and protect the souls of the deceased, allowing them to maintain their status and wealth in the afterlife. The elaborate and monumental nature of these tombs is a reflection of the importance of the individual buried within and their role within Lycian society.

Their honored dead were buried in geographically high places like cliffsides to give them a "higher" location and make them closer to "heaven," as they also believed that their dead were carried to the afterlife by magical winged creatures that resembled sirens.

All Anatolian cultures created impressive monuments for their dead that were connected to ancestor worship. The soft limestone in the area is likely what helped the Lycians perfect this form of art. The Lycian people's stonemasonry is of note, and it plays a particularly important role in the creation of tombs.

Their fascinating funerary monuments can still be seen all over the landscape of Lycia today. The most recent count found 1,085 examples that are still in tact, with rock-cut tombs being the most prevalent type. The quantity and caliber of the tombs in Lycia are legendary.

Lycia is not the only place in the Mediterranean where rock-cut tombs have been discovered; others include the Palestinian and Nabatean region, Cyrenaica, eastern Anatolian Urartu, the Kurdish border region between Iran and Iraq, the area around Persepolis in Iran, Hegra in Saudi Arabia, and Beni Hassan in Egypt. These locations all have one thing in common: their geographic location, as this type of tomb is typically found in areas with steep cliffs and deep ravines.

Preservation and Tourism

Today, the Lycian rock-hewn tombs are a significant tourist attraction along the Turquoise Coast, drawing visitors from around the world to marvel at their unique architecture and immerse themselves in the ancient history of the region. The Greek and Turkish governments, as well as international organizations, have taken measures to preserve these invaluable historical sites, ensuring that they will continue to captivate and inspire future generations.

The Lycian rock-hewn tombs represent a mesmerizing fusion of artistic expression, architectural innovation, and cultural beliefs. As these ancient marvels continue to captivate and inspire generations of visitors, they stand as a timeless tribute to the extraordinary legacy of the Lycian civilization and the enduring power of human creativity.

This Rare Scaraboid Shows a Persian King Killing a Greek Hoplite

May 29, 2022

By Dimosthenes Vasiloudis

The Scaraboid Telling Stories of Supremacy: A typical artistic example of propagandistic emphasis on the omnipotence of the Persian king

The art and culture of ancient Persia have always been a captivating treasure trove for historians and archeologists. Within this realm of historic material culture, one finds a multitude of symbols, motifs, and artistic practices that shed light on the sociopolitical constructs of the period. A notable artifact that recently captured global attention is an intricately carved scaraboid depicting a Persian King vanquishing a Greek Hoplite—an eloquent example of ancient propagandistic emphasis on the omnipotence of the Persian king.

Art as a Tool of Propaganda

Before delving into the specifics of this fascinating artifact, it is essential to understand the role of art in ancient civilizations. Art was a crucial means of communication and was often employed as an instrument of propaganda. In ancient times, literacy was not widespread, and images were a powerful tool for transmitting messages to the general public. Imagery often portrayed rulers in scenes of heroism, dominance, and divine favor, subtly influencing public perception and reinforcing power structures.

The Achaemenid Persians were a multicultural empire, and architecture, inscriptions, and art all served the king's essential function as ultimate ruler and custodian. The Persian palaces were decorated with coins, seals, and scenes of tribute-giving that specifically extolled the king.

Several Achaemenid reliefs show the king seated on his throne, flanked by soldiers and courtiers, and receiving envoys from all countries that were under his control, stressing his power and control over the enormous expanse of his kingdom.

The people of the empire were given a crucial message by each and every one of these propaganda pictures. Both the heavenly nature of his authority and his great royal might, which was able to crush every foreign uprising and rule over every human population, were described.

Detail showing the king in the throne.

Audience relief (found at the Treasury, Persepolis, Iran - Apadana).

The Scaraboid: An Artistic Chronicle of Persian Strength

The same function is served by a rare scaraboid seal from the fifth century BC. It shows a Persian ruler (perhaps Xerxes I or Artaxerxes I) fastening his spear to a Greek hoplite, who then collapses to the ground in a gallery at the Getty Museum in Los Angeles.

As is well known, the Greco-Persian Wars and the "crushing of the barbarians" are prominent themes on ancient Greek ceramics. Nonetheless, it's really intriguing that this unusual propaganda seal prominently shows the Persian viewpoint.

The Greek hoplite is seen carrying a shield and a spear while being completely unclothed, only sporting the distinctive crested Corinthian helmet. The Persian king's long robe and crown are intricately and precisely etched. Over his shoulder are a bow and quiver.

The stone is supposed to have been found precisely in nearby Caria, and the engraving style points to an origin in western Asia Minor, likely Sardis.

Scaraboids, named for their similarity in shape to the scarab beetle, were common seals used in the ancient Near East. This particular specimen, carefully crafted from a semi-precious stone, is unique in its detailed depiction of a Persian King engaged in combat with a Greek Hoplite.

The depiction of a Persian king overcoming a Greek Hoplite may seem unusual given that historically, Persian-Greek conflicts, such as the famous battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, often resulted in Greek victories. However, the image serves a distinct propagandistic purpose, communicating the power, courage, and divine favor of the Persian king to its audience.

Detailed Examination: Symbols of Power and Superiority

The scaraboid artistry is impressive, revealing a wealth of details about the intended message. The Persian King is shown larger than the Greek Hoplite, a common artistic technique to demonstrate the superior status of the king. The king's facial expression is calm and composed, suggesting confidence and control over the situation, while the Hoplite's face is contorted in fear and defeat. This further underscores the idea of the king's invincibility.

Greek Pottery

Persian soldier (left) and Greek hoplite (right) depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC

Greco-Persian Conflicts between 477 and 449 BC

Known as the Campaigns of the Delian League against Persia, the Greco-Persian conflicts between 477 and 449 BC started with the Greek counterattack in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region. In the next decade, the Athenian politician Cimon began a campaign in Asia Minor to strengthen the Greek position there. A great double victory for the Greek forces comes at the Battle of the Eurymedon, both in the sea and on land.

Towards the end of the 460s BC, the Athenians did support a revolt in Egypt against Persian rulers. Although the Greek task force achieved initial successes, the Athenian force was finally annihilated.

In 451 BC, while a truce was agreed in Greece (with the ongoing First Peloponnesian War), Cimon was once again able to lead an expedition to Cyprus. However, while besieging Kition city, Cimon died, and the Athenian force decided to withdraw, winning another victory at the Battle of Salamis in order to extricate themselves. This campaign marked the end of hostilities between the Delian League and Persia and therefore the end of the Greco-Persian War.

The newly discovered scaraboid presents a fascinating snapshot of the potent intersection of art, propaganda, and power in ancient Persia. It serves as a reminder that the representations of historical events can be significantly influenced by those in power and how they choose to present themselves. While the actual battles may have been lost on the fields, the war of images was fought and won with equal fervor in the grand courts and workshops of ancient Persia, and it is this battle that continues to resonate with us today. Through the scaraboid, we understand the calculated and deliberate projection of the Persian king's omnipotence, a narrative manipulated for the sake of bolstering his rule and control.

A Simple Greek Word is Believed to Be the Only Surviving Signature of the Legendary Queen Cleopatra of Egypt

May 23, 2022

by Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

"Ginesthoi": This Greek word is believed to be the only surviving handwritten signature of the legendary Queen Cleopatra of Egypt!

A single Greek word, "ginesthoi,” meaning "to do as I command" in free translation, written at the bottom of a Ptolemaic papyrus may have been written by the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII herself, claims the Dutch papyrologist Peter van Minnen from the University of Groningen.

First of all, it is worth mentioning that Cleopatra makes a grammatical mistake here, which was common for her time. She added a iota (Greek letter ‘ι’) to the medial passive ginesthō and made it ginesthō[i] out of it. This was very common and made under the influence of the singular dative of the second declension that had -i, but the iota was not read by that time. People often added the iota to other forms that originally didn't have it, like future or subjunctive, e.g., aorist subjunctive graps = graps [i].

On February 23, 33 BC, on the 26th day of Mesir, the sixth ancient Egyptian/ Coptic month, also known as Amsir, the text was conveyed to Alexandria. A German expedition discovered it at Abusir in 1904, and it afterwards appears to have been repurposed to make a cartonnage mummy case.

It concerns a royal decree exempting Publius Canidius, a Roman officer and ally of Marcus Antonius, from paying taxes and receiving financial relief. Canidius would go on to lead Marcus Antonius' land force during the Battle of Aktio (Actium) in 31 BC. According to the text:

We have granted to Publius Canidius and his heirs the annual exportation of 10,000 artabas [300 tons] of wheat and the annual importation of 5,000 Coan amphoras [ca. 34,500 gallons] of wine without anyone exacting anything in taxes from him or any other expense whatsoever. We have also granted tax exemption on all the land he owns in Egypt on the understanding that he shall not pay any taxes, either to the state account or to the account of me and my children, in any way in perpetuity. We have also granted that all his tenants are exempt from personal liabilities and from taxes without anyone exacting anything from them, not even contributing to the occasional assessments in the nomes or paying for expenses for soldiers or officers. We have also granted that the animals used for plowing and sowing as well as the beasts of burden and the ships used for the transportation [down the Nile] of the wheat are likewise exempt from 'personal' liabilities and from taxes and cannot be commandeered [by the army]. Let it be written to those to whom it may concern, so that knowing it they can act accordingly.
Make it so!

The personal nature of the communication, which is apparent in the absence of any official presence of Cleopatra's name and in the absence of a title after the name of the employee to whom it was addressed, leads experts to conclude that it is not a copy despite their assertion that it was written by a court scribe. The decree's wording was written first, followed by Cleopatra's signed approval, and finally the date it was received in Alexandria.

Normally, a court scribe would have written and signed such documents, according to Lorelei Corcoran of the University of Memphis. But, because of the papyrus's unique properties, only Cleopatra would be able to grant such orders her own approval. The document is on exhibit in the Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection (Egyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung) in Berlin with the designation "Berlin P 25 239".

Anemurium: Ruins of A Hellenistic Stone-City in Cilicia, today's Turkey

May 14, 2022

Anemurium (Ancient Greek: Ἀνεμούριον, romanized: Anemourion), also called Animurium, is an ancient city whose ruins, now called Eski Anamur or Anemuryum, are close to the modern Turkish city of Anamur. It was in the Roman province of Cilicia, later Isauria, and was situated near a high promontory (Cape Anamur) that marks the southernmost point of Asia Minor, only 64 km from Cyprus. In the Middle Ages, it was called Stallimur.

Anemurium was already in existence in the Hellenistic period. In AD 52, it was besieged by a local tribe, known as the Cietae, led by Troxobor, but Antiochus IV of Commagene broke the siege and after executing Troxobor and a few of the leading chieftains, pardoned the rest. It was under threat from a similar quarter in 382. Coins from its mint survive from the time of Antiochus IV of Commagene (38–72) to Valerian (253–259). In 260, it was captured by the Sasanians, an event that sent Anemurium into decline for many decades, but it continued to be prosperous until the mid-7th century when it was more or less completely abandoned, probably because the Arab occupation of Cyprus made the coast unsafe.

The ruins of Anemurium were mentioned by Francis Beaufort, an English naval captain who explored the south coast of Turkey in 1811-12 and who published his discoveries in Karamania. Excavations were directed by Elizabeth Alfoldi, University of Toronto (1965–1970), and subsequently James Russell, University of British Columbia, along with Hector Williams and his wife Caroline.

The upper city or acropolis occupies the actual cape, and is described in the Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites as protected on three sides by steep cliffs and on the landward side by a wall with towers and zigzag reentrants. These fortifications and the building inside were constructed in medieval times, in part utilizing Hellenistic elements. The lower town to the north of the citadel extended for at least 1500 m to an area now covered with sand dunes and with a width of 400 m between the eastern seawall and an aqueduct on the west.

The discovered remains include a large theatre, a small covered odeon or bouleuterion, three large public baths and one small one, decorated with mosaic floors (some converted to industrial use in late antiquity), four early Christian churches (some with mosaic floors, mostly geometric, and donors' inscriptions), and an exedra possibly of a civil basilica (law court).

Outside, there is an extensive necropolis of some 350 sepulchral monuments dating from the 1st to the early 4th century. Some included several rooms, a second storey, and even an inner courtyard. Some were decorated with mosaics and wall paintings, including one (BI16) representing the four seasons and a dining couple.

Nearby Mamure Castle, built by the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Little Armenia) on the foundations of a Roman castle, fell into Turkish hands in 1221. The first volume of the publication of the Canadian excavations appeared in August of 2021 under the name of James Russell who directed the excavations at the site. It presents the four churches, the theatre and odeion, the largest painted tomb, and an inscription.

The Impressive Mosaic Floor with a Representation of a Chariot Race in Cyprus

May 2, 2022

It is an impressive mosaic floor, which stands out both for its good condition and for the high quality of its construction and can be dated to the first half of the 4th c. AD, that came to light during an excavation at the site of Piatkia, in Akaki, Nicosia Province in 2015.

The excavation was carried out under the supervision of the Archaeological Officer, Dr. Phryni Hatzichristofi, with the help of the archaeologist, Dr. Vasiliki Lysandrou, and lasted nine weeks.

According to the announcement of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus, during the first excavation period, in 2014, building remains were found at a minimum depth below the ground. A huge tank measuring 10 × 14 m occupies a special place in the area. to mark the eastern end of the building, as well as four parallel carvings on the natural rock.

Chariot race representation

The excavation so far has revealed a part of the mosaic, which depicts a representation of chariot races in progress inside a racecourse and in rich geometric decoration. The virtual scene includes tethrips, in which the driver is depicted standing, fighting around the spina.

Each chariot is accompanied by two inscriptions. The steeple depicts three columns ending in three bronze dolphins, from which water flows, and a temple. Among the chariots appear a man on horseback and two pedestrians holding one whip and the other a vessel of water.

Although the building has not yet been identified, the presence of this mosaic floor in a remote area of the hinterland offers new important data for this period in Cyprus and adds to our knowledge of the use of mosaic floors on the island.

Why Saint Sisoi, the Christian Desert Monk is Depicted Mourning Over the Tomb of Alexander the Great?

April 25, 2022

The Saint of the Orthodox Christian Church, the hermit, desert monk Sisoi, has been depicted for hundreds of years in hagiographies over the open tomb of Alexander the Great.

Saint Sisois is an enigma for both classical and Byzantine archaeology. Specialist scholars try to interpret the symbolism of the relevant hagiographies (the first of which date back to the 14th century AD) and also to answer convincingly the question: Did Saint Sisois really saw the tomb of Alexander the Great?

The existence of Saint Sisoi was pointed out by Mr. Sotiris Athanaselis, Professor of Toxicology at the Medical School of the University of Athens. Specifically, Mr. Athanaselis in his extensive letter entitled "The Tomb of Alexander the Great in Christian Hagiography" writes: “From my first visit to this amazingly hagiographed church, I was struck by a mural-hagiography of Saint Sisoi who is located in front of the open tomb of Alexander the Great (!)” and exclaims:

‘Seeing you, grave, I am terrified and frightened at your sight and I shed tears from my heart, bringing to my mind the debt that all people have to pay (that is, death), so I will suffer also such an end. Oh, you death, who can avoid you?'

“This scene, as depicted in the mural (image below), in addition to the impression it caused me, also created some reasonable questions which I tried to investigate with relative - I confess - success since the whole subject has nothing to do with my profession.”

Original inscription:

“Ορών σε τάφε δειλιώ σου την θέαν και καρδιοστάλακτον δάκρυον χέω, χρέος το κοινόφλητον εις νουν λαμβάνων, πως ουν μέλλω, διελθείν περας τοιούτον. Αι, αι θάνατε τις δύναται φυγείν σε;”

The disciples of Saint Sisoi, who are considered to be the first to depict the relevant scene, describe it as follows:

'Sisoi the Great in Asceticism in front of the tomb of Alexander the Great, frightened from the glorious past, sorrowful about the restlessness of time and temporary glory, behold he mourns'.

Saint Sisoës the Great (also Sisoi the Great, Sisoy the Great, Sisoes of Sceté or Shishoy was born in 367 and died in 429 AD. He was an early Christian desert father, a solitary monk pursuing asceticism in the Egyptian desert in a cave of his predecessor, St Anthony the Great He consecrated in the desert of Thebes in Upper Egypt. His memory is celebrated on July 6 and belongs to the first generation of great hermits who followed Antonios the Great. In ascetic and hagiological texts he is characterized as ‘Osios (= saint, monk) Sisois’ or ‘Abbas (= father) Sisoi’.

Sisoës was a Copt by birth. Having withdrawn the world from his youth, he retired to the desert of Sceté, and lived some time under the direction of his teacher, Abba Or. The desire of finding a retreat yet more unfrequented induced him to cross the Nile and hide himself in the mountain where St. Anthony the Great died some time before.

Saint Sisoës the Great at the tomb of Alexander the Great (16th c., Varlaam Monastery, Meteora), signifying the remembrance of death (Memento mori).

The monastery of Abba Sisoi, in the valley of Nitria in the Wadi el Natroun region of Egypt is one of the ancient monasteries of the Scete, the cradle of Christian monasticism, which have been operating since the 4th century AD. The monastery contains the relic of Saint Sisoi which is said to be perfectly preserved on a red cloth.

The monks claim that it is not uncommon for Saint Sisoi to perform miracles for the true believers and is also considered one of the most important saints of the Coptic Christians in Egypt. His first depictions, in the 16th century, depict him as a respected elder. Saint Sisois is always depicted, in all the hagiographies, next to the tomb of Alexander the Great, reflecting on the futility of life and the inevitability of death.

But why Alexander the Great and not someone else?

It should be noted that similar hagiographies to that of Koukouli have been recorded in many places in Greece, including the Monastery of Megisti Lavra and the Monastery of Xiropotamos on Mount Athos, the Monastery of Barlaam in Meteora (1566) and the Monastery of Megisti in Kastelorizo. It is also depicted in Churches of Kastoria as in the chapel of Agios Ioannis the Theologian in the Monastery of Panagia Mavriotissa (1552), in St. Nikolaos Theologinas (1662) and in the church of Ioannis Prodromos in the Apozari district (1727). A similar depiction exists in the Monastery of the Greatest Brigadiers in Milies of Pelion (1774). To all of this should also be added the relatively later depiction in the church dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin in Koukouli, Zagori (1788).

Of particular importance is the hagiography of Agios Ioannis the Theologian in the Monastery of Panagia Mavriotissa, in which Saint Sisois is depicted in front of an open tomb, where together with the skeleton of Alexander the Great are depicted also two other skeletons. According to one acceptation, this is a declarative element of the posthumous equality of kings and non-kings.

But does this depiction indicate the burial of Alexander the Great in polyandry?

In the hagiography of Koukouli a different thing (and unique in relation to the other hagiographies) is that on the head of the skeleton of Alexander the Great there is a golden crown.

Dorotheus, Bishop of Tire (255-362 AD), when he returned from exile during which he had worked as a slave in the mines of the oasis of Zion in Egypt, stated that its inhabitants were pagans and worshiped the Egyptian god Ammon, but also Alexander the Great who was buried there. Knowing the extensive discussions that have taken place and are taking place to locate the exact location of the tomb of Alexander the Great, we can wonder why Saint Sisois is always depicted in front of this tomb?

Had Saint Sisois really found the tomb of Alexander the Great somewhere where he was a monk? Is this what the relevant hagiography shows the depiction of a real event? If the exact routes of Saint Sisoi are searched and located, will the legendary tomb of Alexander the Great be located? These are definitely very interesting questions to answer.

The question posed by the case of Saint Sisoi is whether its depiction should be taken as "literal" or studied for its symbolic meaning. In the first acceptation, the analysis must focus to the investigation of the historical data about a visit of Sisoi to the tomb of Alexander the Great. In the second, however, archaeologists emphasize how the hagiography reflects "the fear of the death of the entire Byzantine world that has seen an empire collapse and philosophize on the futility of the world".

Movable image of the 16th c. Hermitage Museum.

Also, the fact that in the depictions of Saint Sisoi appears the tomb of Alexander the Great, seems to be a later addition, probably of the Theban hagiographers Georgios and Frankos Kontaris, who in 1556 painted the Monastery of Barlaam, in Meteora. So while until then Osios Sisoi was presented over an open tomb of a stranger, after the intervention of the two brothers he was found above the …sarcophagus of Alexander the Great, precisely to emphasize even more the futility of the worldly.

Introit of St. Sisoi:

The Sanctuary of Amyklaios Apollo and the Colossal Throne of the Greek God

April 23, 2022

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The ancient world was home to many awe-inspiring monuments and sanctuaries, places where humankind paid homage to its deities. Among these, the Sanctuary of Amyklaios Apollo in Laconia, Greece, stands out, primarily because of its colossal throne dedicated to the god Apollo. This article delves into the history, architecture, and cultural significance of this sanctuary and its iconic throne.

Background and Historical Context

The Sanctuary of Amyklaios (Amylases) Apollo is located on a hill in Amyklae, which is about 5 kilometers south of Sparta. According to ancient sources and traditions, the worship of Apollo in Amyklae dates back to prehistoric times, with the god being worshiped alongside Hyacinthus, a divine hero of local mythology. Over time, the significance of the sanctuary grew, especially during the Archaic and Classical periods.

The Temple of Amyklaios Apollo is said to be the source of the belief that Apollo preferred Hyacinth, the youngest son of Amykla and Diomedes. During a duel of archery between the two, Apollo accidentally murdered him with the disc. A further version of the story says that the wind deity Zephyrus, who was in love with and envious of Hyacinth, purposefully pushed the disk of Apollo onto his head, causing Hyacinth to die. Hyacinth, a beautiful flower, is reported to have grown where the blood from the wound flowed. In Amyklae, where Hyacinth was laid to rest, a strange structure with apartments and galleries dating back to the sixth century BC was erected above his shrine.

excavations of the site

The Sanctuary of Amyklaios Apollo (also known as the Sanctuary of Hyacinth and Apollo) was considered one of the most important and beautiful monuments in ancient Greece.

Archaeologist Christos Tsountas originally excavated the sanctuary between 1989 and 1990, exposing a constructed wall and the temple's courtyard. A. Furtwaengler, an archaeologist, and E. Fiechter, an architect, continued the excavation in 1904. A. Skias continued the excavations in 1907 and moved the church of Agia Kyriaki, where the throne of Amyklaios Apollo was discovered. In reality, studies have revealed that the sanctuary's materials were used to construct Agia Kyriaki's complete church. E. Buschor and W. von Massow continued work on the excavation in 1924.

A massive marble threshold was discovered inside the Prophet Elias Church in Sklavochori. There have been 15 antique architectural elements, statues, or capitals discovered in the same church (plus one more in Agioi Theodoroi). Architectural remnants from the throne that had been integrated were also discovered in the church of Agios Nikolaos.

The Colossal Throne and the Cult statue

The most distinguished element of this sanctuary is the colossal throne, a construction that many ancient travelers wrote about, though sadly, today only remnants exist. Pausanias, the 2nd-century AD traveler and geographer, provided a detailed account of this structure in his Description of Greece.

This throne was neither a simple seat nor exclusively intended for seating. Standing over 10 meters high, it was an amalgamation of intricate sculptures and reliefs depicting gods, heroes, and mythical creatures. This made the throne not just an artistic marvel but also a narrative structure, telling tales of divine and heroic feats. Its sheer size and grandeur were so overwhelming that it often led many to mistakenly identify it as a tomb or monument.

***The throne was the work of sculptor Vathiklis, from Magnesia in Asia Minor and dated back to the end of the 6th century BC.***

Archaeological excavations have revealed fragments of this throne, including parts of sphinxes, griffins, and various other figures that once adorned it. These remnants give us a glimpse of the sanctuary's past glory and the artistic craftsmanship of the age.

The columnar figure of Apollo was positioned in the middle of the enormous throne. The statue, according to Pausanias, was made up of three pillars that stood roughly 14 meters tall. The figure had a helmet on his head and held a spear and a bow in each hand. The throne was created towards the end of the sixth century BC by the Magnesian artist Vathiklis, who was from Asia Minor. Four female figures—two Charites and two Ores (Hours)—supported the building's right and left façades. Before the throne was constructed, the statue was said to have been here for at least fifty years, according to scholars. At the Archaeological Museum of Sparta, Doric and Ionian elements of the mixed style are currently on display. The vertebrae of the columns, the floor and ceiling slabs, the door pilasters, the epistyle portions, and other details stand out.

***Coins depicting the statue of Apollo***

All attempts to depict the throne up until this point have been based on Pausanias' description. His evidence indicated that the throne had the appearance of a single large bench, with the already-present cult statue of Apollo standing prominently in its middle. This served as both a pedestal for the cult statue and an altar for Hyacinth. It was put precisely over her grave. The visitor states clearly that Bathykles of Magnesia completed all of the remaining design and configuration work for the shrine in addition to building and decorating the throne.

There have been numerous attempts to depict the intricate shape of the throne, including the fantastical depictions created by Quatremere de Quincy in 1814, Theodor Pyl in 1852, Ludwig Ruhl in 1854, and Adolf Furtwängler in 1893. These depictions were first put together by Ernst Fiechter and more recently by Amalia Faustoferri, along with other efforts to replicate the legendary elements of the ornamentation. One thing that unites all of the proposed changes to the monument is the portrayal of Pausanias' descriptions in the open design suggestions. The indication of a hypothetical portrayal differs depending on the circumstances and the aesthetic standards in effect at the time the submission is made. However, it should be observed that no matter how closely the depictions resemble the enormous cult monument of the God, the essential notion of the seat always wins out.

The two alternate Fiechter plans from 1918 were the first to receive support from all the architectural ruins discovered during excavations or resulting from the destruction of the hilltop church. The Hellenistic Pergamon altar may have been modeled after the seat that Ernst Buschor and Wilhelm von Massow designed in 1927. In 1976, Roland Martin endorsed views that were comparable to those of Fiechter.

The supporting base (krepida) of the throne has been identified as the only remaining piece of the foundation wall constructed using the isodomon technique, which is situated at the summit of the hill to the south of the church of Ag. Kyriaki. The preserved "krepida," which is 4 m long and 1 m high, is built from rectangular, poros stones in its lowest levels, while its upper surface displays a line of blocks made of dark marble.

Architectural and Cultural Significance

The design and conception of the colossal throne exemplify the architectural and artistic innovations of the Archaic period. The blending of natural and mythical elements in its construction reflects the zeitgeist of the time—a society deeply rooted in its religious beliefs and traditions.

Beyond its architectural wonder, the Sanctuary of Amyklaios Apollo, and particularly the throne, served as a focal point for religious gatherings. The annual Hyacinthia festival, dedicated to both Apollo and Hyacinthus, saw a plethora of activities, from musical contests to horse races. During these celebrations, the colossal throne would have been the centerpiece, a testament to the intertwined relationship between mortals and the divine.

The Sanctuary Today

Today, what remains of the sanctuary offers a powerful reminder of the past. While the colossal throne is no longer intact, the site's ruins and fragments are invaluable to archaeologists and historians. Efforts to protect and study the site have provided valuable insights into the religious practices, art, and architecture of ancient Laconia.

The Sanctuary of Amyklaios Apollo and its iconic colossal throne are more than just relics of the past. They are symbols of human aspiration, of the blend of artistry and faith, and of a society's reverence for its deities. As we reflect on these ancient marvels, we're reminded of the timeless human desire to connect with something larger than ourselves and to leave behind legacies that echo through the ages.

**Look** **here**

**a unique digital representation of ancient Sparta based on Pausanias descriptions!**

The Letoon Trilingual Stele: An Interlingual Greek-Lycian-Aramaic Inscription

April 16, 2022

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

In the annals of history, the discovery of multilingual inscriptions has often been the key to unlocking the mysteries of extinct cultures and languages. One such monumental find is the Letoon Trilingual Stele, an ancient stone tablet inscribed with texts in Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic. This impressive artifact sheds light on the sociopolitical dynamics and intercultural exchanges of its time.

Historical Background and Location

Nestled in modern-day Turkey's Lycia region, Letoon was a significant religious sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Leto and her twins, Apollo and Artemis. The sanctuary's ruins bear witness to the rich history of Anatolia, with its evolving pantheon and varying rulers. The Letoon Trilingual Stele was unearthed within this sanctuary, pointing to the site's importance as a hub of religious and perhaps political activity.

The Letoon trilingual, or Xanthos trilingual, is an inscription in three languages: standard Lycian, or Lycian A; Greek; and Aramaic, covering the faces of a four-sided stone stele called the Letoon Trilingual Stele, discovered in 1973 during the archeological exploration of the Letoon temple complex (devoted to the goddess Leto). It was created when Lycia was under the sway of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.

Although the use of the term "Letoon" with regard to the inscription and the stele is unequivocal, there is no standard name for either. Xanthos trilingual is sometimes used, which is to be distinguished from Xanthos trilingual, meaning the Xanthos stele. However, sometimes the Xanthos stele is used for the Letoon trilingual stele as well as for the tomb at Xanthos. Moreover, the term Xanthos trilingual (Lycian A, Lycian B, and Greek) is sometimes used of the tomb at Xanthos. In the latter two cases, only the context can provide clues as to which stele is meant. The Aramaic inscription is known as KAI 319.

Given its location in a religious sanctuary, the stele might also shed light on syncretic religious practices or shared religious narratives across Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic-speaking communities.

The Inscriptions: A Linguistic Tapestry

1. Greek: The language of Homer and Plato, Greek, was widely spoken and understood across the Mediterranean. The Greek inscription on the stele reaffirms the extensive Hellenistic influence across Anatolia, particularly in major religious centers like Letoon.

2. Lycian: As with the Xanthian Obelisk, the presence of the Lycian language, indigenous to the Lycia region, underscores the cultural identity of the local populace. Lycian inscriptions often provide crucial clues to the socio-religious practices and governance of ancient Lycia.

3. Aramaic: The real surprise on the stele is Aramaic, a Semitic language primarily associated with ancient Mesopotamia and the Levant. Its presence on the stele highlights the far-reaching trade, diplomatic, and perhaps migratory patterns, emphasizing Anatolia's role as a crossroads of cultures.

Implications of the Trilingual Inscription

The stele serves multiple purposes.

Linguistic Decoding: Similar to the Rosetta Stone's role in decoding Egyptian hieroglyphics, multilingual inscriptions provide a means to decipher and cross-reference languages. In this case, the Lycian text, juxtaposed with its Greek and Aramaic counterparts, offers deeper insights into its structure and vocabulary.

Historical Insights: The confluence of three languages on a single stele hints at a period of cultural mingling. This could have been due to trade, shared governance, diplomatic alliances, or a mix of these factors.

Religious Significance: Given its location in a religious sanctuary, the stele might also shed light on syncretic religious practices or shared religious narratives across Greek, Lycian, and Aramaic-speaking communities.

The inscription is a public record of a decree authorizing the establishment of a cult, with references to the deities and provisions for officers in the new cult. The Lycian requires 41 lines; the Greek, 35; and the Aramaic, 27. They are not word-for-word translations, but each contains some information not present in the others. The Aramaic is somewhat condensed.

Summary of the text

Lines 1-5 of the Lycian text date the inscription to the government of Pixodaros.
Lines 5-8: the Xanthians introduce a cult for two gods, "the Kaunian Ruler and King Arkesimas".
Lines 9-11: a certain Simias is made priest, his priestship will be hereditary.
Lines 12-20: definition of the territory owned by the temple, and of the salary to be awarded to the priest.
Lines 20-24: on behalf of the temple a new tax is instituted, to be levied when a slave is liberated.
Lines 24-30: the revenues thereof shall be spent on sacrifices at regular times.
Lines 30-36: the citizens of Xanthos and the territory of Xanthos vow to execute faithfully those regulations.

Sample of the Lycian text

Below is a transliteration of a sample of lines with an English translation:

1-2. When Pixodarus, the son of Hecatomnus, became satrap of Lycia, (1) Ẽke: trm̃misñ: xssaθrapazate: pigesere: (2) katamlah: tideimi:

2-5. he appointed as rulers of Lycia Hieron (ijeru) and Apollodotos (natrbbejẽmi), and as governor (asaxlazu) of Xanthus, Artemelis (erttimeli). sẽñneñte- (3) pddẽhadẽ: trm̃mile: pddẽnehm̃mis: (4) ijeru: senatrbbejẽmi: se(j)arñna: (5) asaxlazu: erttimeli:

5-6. The citizens (arus) and the Xanthian neighboring residents decided mehñtitubedẽ: (6) arus: se(j)epewẽtlm̃mẽi: arñnãi:

7-8. to establish an altar to the Kaunian Ruler and the King Arkesimas (7) m̃maitẽ: kumezijẽ: θθẽ: xñtawati: (8) xbidẽñni: se(j)arKKazuma: xñtawati:

9-10. and they chose as priest Simias, the son of Kondorasis (9) sẽñnaitẽ: kumazu: mahãna: ebette: (10) eseimiju: qñturahahñ: tideimi:

11. and whoever is closest to Simias (11) sede: eseimijaje: xuwatiti:

12. and they granted him exemption (arawã) from taxes. (12) seipijẽtẽ: arawã: ehbijẽ: esiti:

The Letoon Trilingual Stele is more than just a piece of inscribed stone; it's a silent orator of a bygone era, speaking of a time when cultures converged, languages intermingled, and histories intertwined. As with all such artifacts, it prompts us to reflect on the ever-evolving story of human civilization and the ties that bind us across time and space.

The Trilingual Xanthian Pillar: A Tale of Greek, Lycian, and Milyan Inscriptions

April 16, 2022

By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

The Trilingual Inscribed 'Xanthian Obelisk' of Ancient Greek, Lycian, and Milyan Languages

The rich tapestry of history is woven with the threads of diverse cultures and civilizations. One such piece of this tapestry is the Xanthian Obelisk, an artifact that stands as a testimony to the mingling of languages and cultures in ancient Anatolia. Etched with inscriptions in Ancient Greek, Lycian, and Milyan, the obelisk presents historians and linguists with a golden opportunity to unlock secrets of the past.

Location and Historical context

The Xanthian Obelisk, also known as the Xanthos or Xanthus Stele, the Xanthos or Xanthus Bilingual, the Inscribed Pillar of Xanthos or Xanthus, the Harpagus Stele, the Pillar of Kherei and the Columna Xanthiaca, is a stele bearing an inscription currently believed to be trilingual, found on the acropolis of the ancient Lycian city of Xanthos, or Xanthus, near the modern town of Kınık in southern Turkey.

Xanthos (or Xanthus) was the capital city of ancient Lycia. Lycia was a region situated on the southern coast of Anatolia and had significant interactions with neighboring cultures and empires, notably the Persians and Greeks.

The Xanthian Obelisk was discovered in the Xanthos acropolis. The intricately carved stele dates back to the 4th century BC and is a significant remnant of Lycian culture and history.

It was created when Lycia was part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The pillar is seemingly a funerary marker of a dynastic satrap of Achaemenid Lycia. The dynasty in question is mentioned on the stele, but his name has been mostly defaced in the several places where he is mentioned: he could be Kherei (Xerei) or more probably his predecessor Kheriga (Xeriga, Gergis in Greek).

The obelisk or pillar was originally topped by a tomb, most certainly belonging to Kheriga, in a way similar to the Harpy Tomb. The top most likely fell down during an earthquake in ancient times. The tomb was decorated with reliefs of his exploits, and a statue of the dynasty standing on top.

The Inscriptions: A Trilingual Puzzle

The three languages are Ancient Greek, Lycian, and Milyan (the last two are Anatolian languages and were previously known as Lycian A and Lycian B, respectively). During its early period of study, the Lycian either could not be understood or was interpreted as two dialects of one language, hence the term bilingual.

1. Ancient Greek: Greek was a widely spoken and understood language in the Eastern Mediterranean during this period. Its presence on the obelisk signifies the Hellenistic influences in Lycia and the broader interactions between the Lycians and the Greeks.

2. Lycian: The Lycian language, a member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European family, is indigenous to the Lycian region. Although now extinct, inscriptions like those on the Xanthian Obelisk provide valuable insights into the language and, by extension, the culture and politics of ancient Lycia.

3. Milyan (or Milyas): This is the least known of the three languages on the obelisk. Milyan is also an Anatolian language, spoken in the neighboring region of Milyas. Its presence on the obelisk underscores the close ties and interactions between the Lycian and Milyan people.

Significance of the Obelisk

The trilingual inscriptions on the Xanthian Obelisk are reminiscent of the Rosetta Stone in Egypt, which was inscribed with Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic, and Ancient Greek. Such multilingual inscriptions are invaluable for linguists and historians, as they provide a means to cross-reference and decode extinct or poorly understood languages.

In addition to its linguistic importance, the obelisk sheds light on the socio-political climate of the time. The blending of three languages indicates a region that was not only a melting pot of cultures but also a hub of trade, diplomacy, and perhaps even shared governance.

Another trilingual from Xanthus, the Letoon trilingual, was subsequently named after its three languages: Greek, Lycian A, and Aramaic. They are both four-sided and trilingual. The search sites are different. The key, unequivocal words are bilingual, Letoon, Aramaic, Lycian B, and Milyan. The equivocal words are stele, trilingual, Xanthus, or Xanthos. The "Xanthus inscription" might refer to any inscription from Xanthus.

Text of the Obelisk at Xanthos. A more complete copy of all the fragments can be seen in *The Xanthian Marbles*.

Inscriptions

The stele is an important archaeological find pertaining to the Lycian language. Similar to the Rosetta Stone, it has inscriptions both in Greek and in a previously mysterious language: Lycian, which, on further analysis, turned out to be two Luwian languages, Lycian and Milyan.

Although not oriented on the cardinal directions, the stele presents four faces of continuous text that are traditionally described directionally, south, east, north and west, in that order, like the pages of a book. They are conventionally lettered a, b, c, and d. The whole book is inscription TAM I 44. The text of each page was inscribed in lines, conventionally numbered one through the number of the last line on the page. There are three pieces of text:

a.1 through c.19. A historical section of 250 lines in Lycian describing the major events in which the deceased was involved.
c.20 through c.31. A 12-line epigram in Greek in the style of Simonides of Ceos honoring the deceased.
c.32 through d.71. A paraphrase of the epigram in Milyan.

The pillar sits atop a tomb, and the inscription celebrates the deceased: a champion wrestler.

The Xanthian Obelisk stands as a silent sentinel of the past, bearing messages from ancient civilizations. Its trilingual inscriptions have significantly contributed to our understanding of the languages and interactions of the ancient Anatolian peoples. As researchers continue to study such artifacts, we get one step closer to unraveling the mysteries of our shared human heritage.

On the Way to a New Museum of Underwater Antiquities in Piraeus, Greece

April 10, 2022

The Ministry of Culture and Sports announced that the Museum Council unanimously approved the architectural, static, electromechanical and museography preliminary studies and the modification of the building programme of the Museum of Underwater Antiquities on the Ietionian Coast of Piraeus. Thus the industrial Silo building on the site of the Piraeus Port Authorities (PPA) will be transformed into an innovative Museum of Underwater Antiquities highlighting the treasures of the Greek seas and becoming an emblematic cultural landmark in the country’s largest port.

After the Council’s approval, Minister of Culture and Sports Lina Mendoni made the following statement: “A vision of decades is about to be realized, thanks to our cooperation with the PPA, the Aikaterini Laskaridis Foundation which financed the preliminary studies – and the project’s financing through the Recovery Fund. The unique wealth of the Greek seas acquires an ideal home in the old Silo building , which has been associated with Piraeus’ history since the mid-1930s. It is the most suitable place to house the numerous and already conserved underwater finds, which have remained for years in the Ephorate of Antiquities’ warehouses. The main purpose of creating the Museum of Underwater Antiquities is to highlight our country’s connections with the sea and the long history of Greek culture through the underwater findings. There are only a handful of museums in the world that exhibit exclusively marine antiquities. It is obvious that the Museum will be able to introduce Piraeus as one of the international cultural destinations”.

An ancient greek trireme Source: Tsolakis Architects

The Museum of Underwater Antiquities will house finds salvaged from all the Greek seas: Statues, parts of sculptures, hulls and ship components, rigging equipment, inscriptions, toiletries, utensils and table ceramics, tools and a variety of artefacts from underwater surveys, research and excavations, as well as items handed over by individuals or confiscated.

Experience of a Byzantine ship. Source: Tsolakis Architects

The Museum of Underwater Antiquities will offer visitors the experience of diving into the past, with stops in various periods of time, sunken settlements, shipwrecks, ship models, hulls and cargoes of merchant ships, maps and diagrams, digital applications and projections, with a special emphasis on educational activities and projects.

Sea Bottom and Shipwrecks. Source: Tsolakis Architects

With the planned new extension, the Museum facilities will exceed 13,000 sq.m. It will include exhibition spaces for permanent and temporary exhibitions, spaces for educational programmes and scientific activities (amphitheatre, library, multimedia room), conservation workshops and service areas for visitors (reception hall, cloakroom, museum shop, cafeteria, restaurant, infirmary, administration offices).

By Archaeology wiki

14 Best-preserved and Most Amazing Ancient Theatres of Graeco-Roman Antiquity

March 27, 2022

Scattered around the Mediterranean lie the remains of the ancient theaters of the Greek and Roman world. The Greek theaters were large, open-air structures constructed on the slope of a hill. Roman theaters, although heavily influenced by the Greeks, have specific differences, such as being built upon their own foundations.

The theater originates from the city-state of Athens where it was used for festivals honoring the god Dionysus and the famous Athenian tragedy, comedy, and satyr plays. The Romans, being a little bit less philosophical in spirit than the Greek, wanted more pure entertainment with lots of laughs and excitement. Popular entertainments in Roman times included mime plays, acrobatics, jugglers, animal fights and gladiator fights although the later two were more common in the Roman amphitheater.

14. Theater of Taormina

Taormina was a Greek colony on the east coast of the island of Sicily. The theater of Taormina was built by the Greeks in the 2nd century BC and restructured and widened by the Romans. The ancient theatre is beautiful situated, overlooking the bay of Naxos and mount Etna. Today it is the center of the Taormina’s international film festival.

13. Jerash Theatres

Jerash is a popular archaeological site in Jordan, second only to Petra. The city’s golden age came under Roman rule and the site is now generally acknowledged as one of the best preserved Roman provincial towns in the world. Jerash contains not one but two Roman theatres. The north theatre, with a capacity of 1600, was built in 165 AD and was mainly used as the city council chamber. The larger south theatre was built between 90-92 AD and could seat more than 3000 spectators.

12. Odeon of Herodes Atticus

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus, cut into the southern slope of the Athenian Acropolis, was built in 161 AD by Herodes Atticus in memory of his wife. The structure was used as a theatre in ancient Athens for various plays and music concerts. It originally had a wooden roof and could seat up to 5,000 people.

11. Roman Theatre of Merida

According to an inscription, the Roman Theatre of Merida in present-day Spain was built in 16 BC by order of Agrippa, a general and friend of emperor Augustus. The ancient theatre could house up to 6,000 spectators. In later centuries the theater underwent several restorations which introduced new architectonic elements and decorations. The structure was restored to the current state in the 1960s-1970s.

10. Roman Theatre of Amman

The Roman Theatre of Amman in Jordan was built during the reign of Marcus Aurelius in the 2nd century AD. The large and steeply raked theatre could seat about 6,000 people. It is cut into the hillside and oriented north to keep the sun off the spectators. The theatre was built on three tiers: the rulers, sat closest to the action, the military had the middle section, and the general public sat on the highest section. Although far from the stage, even there the actors could be clearly heard, owing to the steepness of the theatre.

9. Pergamum Theatre

Pergamum was an ancient city founded by Greek colonists on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Although Pergamum is one of Turkey’s lesser known archaeological sites it contains a number of notable structures, including the theater. The Pergamon theater was built in the 3rd century and could seat 10,000 spectators. It is one of the steepest ancient theaters in the world.

8. Theatre of Side

Side is a popular resort town on the Mediterranean coast of southern Turkey. The city was founded by Greek settlers in the 7th century BC and was one of most important trade centers in the region. In 25 BC Side became part of the Roman province Galatia and prospered through its trade in olive oil and slaves. The roman ruins of Side that are in fairly good condition today include a temple, city gate and an ancient theatre which could seat about 15,000 to 20,000 people.

7. Theatre of Sabratha

Located in Libya, Sabratha’s was established around 500 BC as a Phoenician trading-post and reched its peak under Roman rules as a coastal outlet for the products of the African hinterland. The Theatre of Sabratha was built in the 2n century AD. The structure appears largely intact owing to its reconstruction by Italian archaeologists in the 1930s. The theatre had 25 entrances and could seat approximately 5,000 spectators.

6. Roman Theatre of Orange

The Roman Theater of Orange in France is a well preserved theatre build in the 1st century AD for watching theatrical performances. After the Roman Empire declined the theatre was closed by official edict in 391 AD as the Church opposed what it regarded as uncivilized spectacles. The ancient theatre was restored in the 19th century and today it is home of the summer opera festival, the Chorégies d’Oran.

5. Great Theatre of Ephesus, Asia Minor

The ruins of Ephesus are a popular tourist attraction on the west coast of Turkey. The city of Ephesus was once famed for the Temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, which was destroyed by a mob led by the archbishop of Constantinople in 401 AD. Some of the structures can still be seen however including the impressive Great Theater. This large theatre, which was capable of holding 25,000 spectators, was used initially for drama, but during later Roman times it was also used for gladiator fights.

4. Aspendos Theatre, Asia Minor

Aspendos boasts one of the best preserved ancient theatres of antiquity. Located in south-west Turkey, the theatre of Aspendos was build in 155 AD during the rule of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and could seat between 15,000 and 20,000 spectators. Because the stage area was later used as a caravanserai (a roadside inn) in Seljuk times, it was continuously repaired and maintained. Thus, the Aspendos Theatre has been able to survive to this days without losing almost any of its original qualities.

3. Delphi Theatre, Greece

In ancient times Delphi was the most important site in ancient Greek religion, home to the sanctuary and oracle of Apollo. The ancient theatre of Delphi in Greece was built on a hill giving spectators a view of the entire sanctuary and the spectacular landscape below. It was originally built in the 4th and could seat 5,000 spectators.

2. Bosra Theater, Syria

Situated 140 Km south of Damascus in Syria, Bosra is an ancient city that was already mentioned in the 14th century BC by Egyptians hieroglyphs. The city was conquered by the Romans in 106 AD who made it the capital of their Arabia province. The theatre of Bosra was built in the 2nd century AD and could seat up to 15,000 people. Because a fortress was built around the theatre by the Ayyubids it is now one of the best preserved Roman theatres in the world.

1. Epidaurus Theater, Greece

The theatre of Epidaurus, located on the northeastern corner of the Peloponnesus in Greece, was constructed in the 4th century BC. It is still one of the most beautiful Greek theatres in the world. Unlike Roman theatres the view on a lush landscape behind the scene is an integral part of the theater itself. The theatre of Epidaurus is famous for its exceptional acoustics. Actors on stage can be perfectly heard by all 14,000 spectators, regardless of their seating.