Alexander the Great: The Siege and Conquest of the Rock of Sogdiana - The first campaign to conquer a fortress using mountaineering methods in world history

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by the archaeologist editor group

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The siege of the Rock of Sogdiana by Alexander the Great in 327 BC was an insignificant military event but of enormous strategic importance. It was a mountain fortress and the fate of the Sogdians depended on its liberty since they were once again ready for revolution. Oxyartis had organized the defense in this shelter and many revolutionary Sogdians and their families had gathered there. The steep cliffs and the thick snow that covered everything made the fortress inaccessible. The Sogdians had enough supplies to withstand the siege and also secured plenty of water from the snow. When Alexander the Great suggested that they surrender, they defiantly replied that he would have to find "winged soldiers" to take the fortress, which enraged him tremendously.

After the Sogdians refused, Alexander decided to attack the fortress. Thereupon he raised the first group of mountain commandos, or more precisely, the first group of elite Mountain Infantry Battalion. He selected 300 warriors who were the most skilled and experienced in climbing the cliffs and asked them to handle the operation, giving 12 talents to the one who climbed first.

According to Curtius, he told the elite soldiers, "Nature has placed nothing so high that courage cannot overcome it. By striving to achieve what others have not dared, we have Asia under our control."

Alexander's elite unit used today's climbing methods, making small iron nails like the ones they used to stabilize their tents. Then they fastened ropes over them and climbed up the steepest part of the rock at night to avoid being seen by enemies. They stuck the nails into crevices or ice and began to climb higher and higher. About thirty were lost in this attempt. The rest reached the summit at dawn and hoisted the flags as arranged.

Without wasting time, Alexander sent a herald to the Sogdians to shout to their vanguard that Alexander had found the winged soldiers, that he already possessed the top of the mountain, and that they must now surrender, at the same time urging them to look up. When the Sogdians saw the flags flying, they were disheartened by this unexpected news. Considering that many more Macedonians were standing on the summit and were armed to the teeth, they decided to surrender and yield to Alexander's psychological rather than physical advantage.

Oaths of the ancient Greek hoplite warriors

The ancient Greek hoplites were heavily armed infantry soldiers who fought in close formation in battles. The hoplites were often required to swear oaths before battles to demonstrate their commitment to their city-state and their fellow soldiers.

There were various oaths that hoplites might swear, depending on the context and the specific circumstances. Some of the most common oaths included:

1. The Oath of Tyrtaios: This oath was attributed to the ancient Spartan poet Tyrtaios and was often used by Spartan hoplites. The oath required the soldiers to pledge their loyalty to their city-state and to fight with courage and honor.

2. The Oath of the Ephebes: This oath was taken by young men who had completed their training as hoplites and were about to join the army. The oath required them to swear allegiance to their city-state and to obey their commanders.

3. The Oath of the Sacred Band: The Sacred Band was a unit of elite soldiers in ancient Thebes, consisting of 150 pairs of male lovers. The members of the Sacred Band swore an oath to protect their fellow soldiers with their lives and to never abandon their positions in battle.

4. The Oath of the Athenian Hoplites: This oath was taken by hoplites from Athens and required them to swear to fight for their city-state and to protect their fellow soldiers.

These oaths were meant to instill a sense of duty, loyalty, and courage in the hoplites, and to bind them together as a cohesive fighting force.

Oath of the Athenian teenagers

With the weapons entrusted to him by his fatherland, the Athenian youth took the following oath before the temple of Aglauros:

I will not let my weapons be ashamed, nor will I abandon my comrade wherever I am ordered to fight, I will defend the sacred and the holy, both alone and with many, and I will not deliver the country smaller, but larger and more militant than before when it was handed over to me. I will believe in the Gods and I will obey the laws in force and everything else that will be established by law. And if anyone abolishes or challenges the institutions, I will not allow it, but will fight him either alone or with many. And I will honor the sacred legacies of the fathers. My witnesses are the gods Agraulos, Enyalios, Ares, Zeus, Thallus, Auxo, Hegemoni.

Paean of the Spartans

On the march to battle, the Spartan warriors sang the paean:

Before mighty Sparta, you children of the citizen fathers, with your left hand you raise your shield, and with your right hand you boldly raise your spear, without sparing your life, for this is not customary in Sparta!

Oath of the Greeks at Plataea

I will not consider life more precious than freedom. I will not leave any of our leaders in battle, alive or dead, but I will also bury all our allies who have fallen in battle. And after we are victorious in the war against the barbarians, I will not destroy any of the cities that fought for Greece. But the cities joined the barbarians in battle, I will decimate them all. And of the temples that were set on fire and destroyed by the barbarians, I will not rebuild a single one, but will leave them standing for future generations as a reminder of the injustice of the barbarians.

Lost part of the Mechanism of Antikythera was found

A new exciting discovery has been made in the Aegean Sea. It is perhaps one of the most important archeological finds of recent years.

A lost part of the famous ancient computer of Antikythera was found in the Greek waters and shocked the whole mankind.

This is the first computer that may have been built by humans, and this fact has the world scientific community in an uproar.

It's a complex, advanced analog "computer" that was found in a shipwreck many years ago.

Divers have discovered a highly technical device with the image of a bull, which they suspect is the missing part of the mechanism.

The Antikythera mechanism was discovered by Greek sponge divers in 1901.

Of course, at that time they themselves did not immediately understand what exactly it was. It took decades and the use of advanced X-ray technology for scientists to realize that it was the first human computer, a wonderfully advanced, sophisticated analog calculating machine made up of dozens of paired gears.

The device could calculate the movements of the sun and moon, predict solar eclipses and equinoxes, and simultaneously track the planets of the solar system, constellations, and more.

We never found out how many gears the original Antikythera mechanism had. Estimates are based on expert guesses and range from 37 to over 70. For comparison, the most modern Swiss watches have four gears.

The ship that carried the mechanism was huge and loaded with valuable cargo.

"In the 1970s, the famous explorer Jacques Cousteau and his team discovered some parts of the mechanism's casing," Dr. Brendan Foley of Lund College told the Israeli newspaper Haaretz.

In 2012, divers discovered hundreds of artifacts in the wreck, including two massive bronze spears, the bronze representation of an arm, other pieces of marble and bronze statues, a mosaic, pieces of furniture, blue game pieces, a sarcophagus lid, gold rings and silver coins.

What is the Antikythera mechanism?

Known as the first computer in history, the Antikythera Mechanism is a complex system of tools dating back to 60 BC and was used by the ancient Greeks to determine the position of the sun, moon and planets.

This 2,000-year-old astronomical computer may have had another function: predicting the future, researchers say.

When was it discovered?

The Antikythera Mechanism was discovered in a shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete.

According to the shape of the Greek inscriptions it bears, it dates from between 150 BC and 100 BC, well before the date of the shipwreck, which may have occurred between 87 BC and 63 BC. It could have been built up to half a century before the wreck. The wreck was discovered in 1900 at a depth of 40 to 64 meters, and many treasures, statues and other objects, were recovered from Simi island sponge collectors and are now in the National Archeological Museum in Athens.

On May 17, 1902, Valerios Stais, archeologist and director of the Archeological Museum, noticed that one of the finds had a gear inscribed with astronomical terms.

The mechanism is the oldest preserved gear mechanism, and a very complex one. It is made of bronze and has a wooden frame. Since its discovery, it has puzzled and fascinated many historians of science and technology. The most accepted theory about its function is that it was both an analog and a digital computer used to calculate and display the movements of celestial bodies, solar and lunar eclipses, and the phases of the moon.

It could display solar and lunar eclipses based on the Babylonian cycle of Sarus. Its dials also featured at least two calendars, a Greek one based on the Metonic cycle, and an Egyptian one, which was also the common "scientific" calendar of the Hellenistic era, and which researchers believe even predicted the dates of the Olympic Games!

The first uses of this instrument presented (mainly before World War II) are: Astrolabe, Dromometer, Reference Clock, Planetarium, Astronomical Ship's Clock or Ancient Navigator. All these uses are not mutually exclusive.

But in essence, it is a mechanism that has changed and continues to change modern technology, demonstrating at the same time the high technological level of the ancient Greeks.

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New Research: The ancient Greeks were very close to inventing the steam-powered water pump

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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According to National Technical College professor Theodosis Tassios, the ancient Greek engineers were only ten to a maximum of 100 years away from inventing a normal steam-powered water pump, so they would have started the industrial revolution long before their time. This finally happened in 1776, when the Scottish engineer James Watt invented such a steam-powered pump.

As Mr. Tassios said, by the time of the Ptolemies, engineers had gradually invented all the necessary mechanical components (belts, pipes, gears, turbines, etc.) that enabled them to harness the energy of air and water to make pumps, thus harnessing both wind and hydrodynamic energy. They had also taken the first step toward steam propulsion by converting thermal energy into kinetic energy and creating rotary motion through steam.

Although the professor of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Mr. Tiverios, pointed out that only about 2.5% of the ancient historical texts have been preserved, it cannot be excluded that the final step of steam propulsion took place, even if only a prototype of a pump was built as a toy and the corresponding technology was then forgotten, but - at least so far - there are no corresponding testimonies and evidence.

Mr. Tassios - who is also president of the Society for the Study of Ancient Greek Technology - estimates that the ancient Greeks, thanks to their impressive scientific and technological advances, came very close to the goal, but they did not definitively advance to the use of steam to move a pump and eventually an engine.

Mr. Tasios and Tiberios referred to the important technological works of Ctesivius (3rd century BC, founder of the School of Engineering and Mathematics in Alexandria), Philo of Byzantium (student of Ctesivius) and Heron (probably 1st century AD), whose inventions showed how advanced Greek applied science and technology was. Many works of Greek engineers have been preserved in Arabic translations, as Mr. Tiverios pointed out.

Mr. Tasios emphasized the passion of the ancient Greeks for technology, pointing out that robots and robotic ships are already mentioned in the epics of Homer. Later, the combination of cosmopolitanism (especially in Alexandria), the emerging bourgeoisie, and the interest of the Ptolemies led to important inventions, as shown by the mechanism of Antikythera. However, the question remains whether these technologies found wider application or remained the privilege of a small group of people.

80 Shackled Skeletons Found in Greek Grave After Ancient Mass Execution

A mass grave was recently discovered four miles outside of Athens in the historic harbor city of Phalaeron. But this wasn't just any mass grave—36 of the 80 skeletons were restrained in iron shackles and were arranged in a row next to each other. Because of this, some researchers speculate that they might be adherents of Cylon, a despot who attempted to conquer Athens in the seventh century B.C.

About 1,500 skeletons have been discovered in a 1-acre cemetery near Phalaeron, according to Tia Ghose of LiveScience. But, this most recent set was discovered in a location where the Greek National Opera and a new branch of the Greek National Library are being built. Scientists were able to date the cemetery between 650 and 625 B.C., a time period that ancient historians claim was full of unrest for Athens, thanks to two tiny vases discovered among the bound skeletons.

The teeth of the remains, according to AFP, indicate that they were largely from younger, healthy individuals. This supports the hypothesis that they were political outlaws who attempted to take control of Athens. A bioarchaeologist from the University of West Florida in Pensacola named Kristina Killgrove, who was not involved in the study, tells Ghose that "these might be the bones of persons who were part of this coup in Athens in 632 [B.C. ], the Coup of Cylon."

The ancient historians Plutarch and Thucydides claim that Cylon participated in the 640 B.C. Olympic Games as an athlete. His triumph there earned him a higher position and the hand of the Megarian tyrant's daughter. Because of the bad harvests and social disparity, Athens experienced unrest during the following 10 years. In 632, Cylon launched a coup with the aid of his father-in-army, law's expecting that the citizens of Athens would follow him. Though most didn't, some did.

As a substitute, Cylon fled the city, and his rebels sought refuge on the Acropolis. They eventually started to hunger, but Megacles, the city archon, guaranteed them safe passage. But he killed them as soon as they exited the shrine. According to Thucydides, "They even killed several of them in the very presence of the dreadful Goddesses at whose altars they had sought sanctuary while passing by." "The killers and those who follow them are considered cursed and transgressors against the Lady."

Nonetheless, it is far from definite that the skeletons belong to Cylon's disciples. Killgrove explains to Ghose that one of the issues is that there aren't many historical records from that century; as a result, "we really have no history" and "it might be a stretch for them to connect these shackled skeletons with this coup." "There are any number of possibilities for why a mass grave — really, many mass graves — of shackled skeletons were uncovered in Athens," says Killgrove in Forbes.

Less archeological sites from the time period do, however, depict people from lower socioeconomic levels. According to Killgrove, these skeletons could provide researchers with information about the working-class Athenians of the time.

What did ancient Greeks think about snow? - Scientific and philosophical views

In many parts of the world, winter is the season when it snows. Although this is less common in Greece than in northern Europe, it has become more common in recent years - especially in February.

Homer used it as the basis for several metaphors and similes in his epic poems. But what did the Greeks really think about snow? There are several myths about snow, such as its origin and causes. There are also comments of the Greek philosophers on this subject.

Did the Greeks like the snow?

Homer's mentions of snow in his epic poems show how the Greeks generally viewed it. The Odyssey describes the Elysian Fields, which in Greek mythology are equated with the afterlife, reserved for those who have the approval of the gods. It was supposed to be a kind of paradise. Homer describes it as a place "where life is easier for people. There is no snow, no heavy storm, and no rain there."

(Elysian Fields is a conception of life after death that developed over time and was maintained by certain Greek religious and philosophical sects and cults. It was originally separate from the Greek underworld - the realm of Hades. Only mortals associated with the gods and other heroes could cross the River Styx. Later, the concept of who could enter the river was expanded to include the chosen of the gods, the righteous and the heroes. They would remain on the Elysian Fields after death to live a blessed and happy afterlife, indulging in all the pleasures they had in life.)

Accordingly, snow was apparently considered a burden in life and not something to be enjoyed. It was viewed as an annoying evil in everyday life, like storms or rain. Whether Homer's comments reflect the views of most Greeks living at the time, we cannot say.

What is clear, however, is that everyone involved in a campaign thought poorly of snow. Various ancient accounts of troops marching through snowy terrain illustrate the dangers involved. Their troops and animals often got stuck in the snow and died from the cold.

Snow in Greek mythology

«Chione killed with an arrow supported by her two sons » tapestry executed after the cartoons of Toussaint Dubreuil (Paris 1561 - Paris the 22/11/1602) around 1633 by Raphaël de la Planche, adorning the desk of Nicolas Fouquet in the castle of Vaux-le-Vicomte - Maincy.

In Greek mythology, there are several stories that deal with how snow came to be or what role it plays in the world. One simple belief was that it was caused by Zeus. In the Iliad, Homer mentions that Zeus brings the snow to the people with his arrows. So it seems that his arrows were blamed for certain weather phenomena, including snowfall.

Another myth attributes snow to a nymph (a type of minor deity) named Chione. This name derives directly from the ancient Greek word for snow. She was the daughter of Boreus, the god of the north winds. There seem to be few, if any, surviving myths about this snow-bringing nymph, but her name strongly suggests that the Greeks believed so.

However, she was not the only figure in Greek mythology with this name. Another Chione was the wife of Boreus. Given the name and the association with the god of the north wind, the Greeks probably thought she had something to do with snow.

Of course, the Greeks had also associated Boreus himself with snow. As the god of the north winds, he was supposed to bring the cold air from the north - especially from Thrace - to Greece.

The early poet Pindar describes Boreus as "of gloomy and icy breath" It is therefore quite possible that some Greeks held Boreus directly responsible for snow.

A third woman named Chione was the daughter of Callirrhoe, one of the Oceanids - a group of nymphs - and Nile, the god of the Nile in Egypt. It is said that Zeus carried her in the clouds and snow fell from her into the desert.

Scientific and philosophical views

The Greeks did not only write about snow in their mythology. Ancient Greek scientists and philosophers also discussed it from time to time.

One of the philosophers who had an interesting view of snow was Anaxagoras. He lived in the fifth century before Christ. Anaxagoras held that snow, although it appears white to us, is actually dark. He reasoned that snow is just frozen water, and water, according to Anaxagoras, is dark.

The word he used to describe the actual color of the snow, "melaina," is usually translated as "black". In reality, however, it usually means "dark". It was sometimes used to describe the color of wine and/or the dark color of the ocean. Perhaps Anaxagoras had in mind the dark color of the seabed.

Despite his unusual idea of the color of snow, this statement tells us something important. At least since the fifth century B.C., the Greeks have known that snow is formed from water.

Another interesting perspective comes from Seneca the Younger, a Roman philosopher of the first century AD, whose views are interesting because he was a Stoic philosopher.

This is a form of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the third century BC. He stated that snow contains more air than water. Modern science has proven this to be absolutely true. In fact, snow is about ninety percent air.

Ancient Greek inscription in the mountains of Tajikistan: traces of Alexander the Great in ancient Bactria?

Ancient Greek letters carved into a rock were found in a mountainous region of Tajikistan, Central Asia.

In particular, a message was written on a stone that, according to Nicholas Sims-Willions, an expert in the study of the Bactrian language, means "This is the... of the King of Kings, Vima Taktu". Due to the natural landscape of Tajikistan, archaeologists do not usually have the opportunity to discover new monuments. Since the surrounding area is inaccessible, local people offered to help archaeologists to collect information.

In 1932, a local shepherd found a basket of documents on Mug Mountain, which he brought to the archaeologists, who then learned that it was the first written text of the historical Sogdian language, which led to the discovery of the ancient settlement of Penjikend. Sogdiana (formerly Transoxiana) was a province of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Although the Sogdian states were never politically united, they were concentrated around the capital city of Samarkand.

How was the rock discovered?

Similar to the shepherd, a resident of a nearby village discovered the engraved rock in the mountains. Bobomulloev Bobomullo, a researcher at the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography of the National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, became interested in the news and took it upon himself to investigate it. After detailed examination, it turned out that the inscriptions were written in ancient script. It was located in the northernmost part of the gorge near the Almosis River. According to the man who found the inscription, there were other inscriptions on many different rocks, but due to avalanches, many of the inscriptions were damaged and fell into the mountains.

What was Bactriana and its history?

According to the World History Encyclopedia, Bactria is a historical region in Central Asia that was part of the Persian Empire. Historically, it was a unified region, but it was divided into what is now Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan. Even after the defeat of the Persian king Darius III, a self-appointed successor of Darius III named Bessus led the resistance against Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great finally conquered Bactria between 329 and 327 BC and held it until his death. After his death, it became part of the Seleucid Empire, which dominated most of the Middle East during the Hellenistic period. Bactria was famous for its gold. Darius I mentions Bactria as a supplier of gold to his imperial palace at Susa. Trade in gold originating from Siberia flourished.

What was the "Seisachtheia" regulation of debt that saved ancient Athens

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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In ancient Athens, Solon's legal regulation of debt was known as the Seisachtheia.

This was Solon's first legislation, but not, as some of the ancient authors claim, for the complete cancellation of debts, which Solonian laws prevented, but only for the relief of debtors beset by usurers.

To this end, he reduced the silver drachma by a quarter and a bit more, so that 100 new drachmas contained as much silver as 72.5 old ones. He reduced the debts of the poor to such an extent that it was said that he abolished mortgages on the lands, since this made it easier to repay the debts. However, he left the determination of the interest rate free and forbade the barbaric custom of "indebtedness on one's own body". He declared honorable those who had been convicted of dishonor by debt or for any other reason, except murder and tyranny.

The term comes from ancient Greek and is composed of "seio" (shake) and "achthos" (burden, debt). It essentially meant "to shake off the burdens".

Current regulation before the Seisachteia

Prior to Solon's prohibition of seisachtheia, debt bondage was in effect in Athens: a citizen who could not repay his creditors lost his freedom.

The legislation of Solon

Solon's legislative measures were very bold but also drastic. They were based on the principle of just inequality rather than absolute equality, trying to prevent unrest and the disintegration of the Athenian political community while maintaining social organization and the primacy of that organization in the province of power.

The Seisachtheia was among the reparation measures taken by Solon

Specifically, the existing debts of private individuals to private individuals and to the city were abolished; lending secured by the "body" (personal freedom) of the borrower and his family members was abolished; and those Athenians who had become slaves due to debts were freed. Athenians who had been sold abroad in the meantime were returned to the city.

It is known that Solon ended the dependence of the poor peasants in Attica with the "Seisachtheia". What is not known and remains controversial in research is the procedure by which he restored those who had fallen victim to the arbitrariness of the rich, precisely because there were no written provisions (Solon also says so in one of his poems).

The measure is sometimes associated with the dependent peasants who cultivated the land of the privileged with the agreement to give them 1/6 of the production instead of rent, while sometimes it is associated with all those who borrowed and cultivated the land of the rich and powerful with their personal freedom as a pledge.

The seisachtheia was not created to abolish slavery but to free slaves from their debts. Solon's reforms allowed for two exceptions: The guardian of an unmarried woman who had lost her virginity had the right to sell her into slavery, and a citizen could abandon an unwanted newborn.

Asclepius: The hero and god of medicine

The biography of Asclepius is indeed fictitious. Of course, we are not in a position to know the boundaries between myth and reality.

Whether, for example, a resurrection was some kind of epiphany or not So we could study the texts and nothing more.

So let us read what these texts say about Asclepius:

Asclepius (Latin: Aesculapius) is known to be both a hero and a god of medicine. He is the son of Apollo, but the myths surrounding his birth vary widely. Mostly—here we are specifically concerned with the version accepted by Pindar—it is said that Apollo fell in love with Coronis, the daughter of the Thessalian king Phlegyas, and left her pregnant; but when Coronis was expecting a child, she gave herself to the love of a mortal, Ischis, the son of Elatos.

Apollo learned of this transgression through a crow (or else through his gift of divination) and killed the unfaithful; at the moment when Coronis' body was placed on the funeral pyre and would soon burn, Apollo pulled the still-living child from her entrails. This is how Asclepius was born.

According to another version, to explain why Asclepius was the great god of Epidaurus in the Peloponnese, Phlegyas, a great robber, came to the land to explore its riches and study how he could become its master. He was accompanied by his daughter. During the journey, she was seduced by Apollo and gave birth to a son in the land of Epidaurus, at the foot of Mount Myrtios.

Then she abandoned her son. But a goat came to suckle the child and a dog to guard it. The shepherd Arestanas, who owned the goat and the dog, found the child and was dazzled by the light around it. He understood that there was a secret and did not dare to take the child, so it followed its divine destiny.

According to another version, the mother of Asclepius was Arsinoe, the daughter of Leucippus. This was the tradition of Messinia, which they tried to reconcile with the other ones, claiming that the child was the son of Arsinoe but raised by Koronis.

The number of people he brought up was significant

It is said that Asclepius' father entrusted him to the centaur Chiron, who taught him medicine. In a short time, Asclepius acquired great skills in this art. He even discovered a way to bring the dead back to life. Namely, he had taken from Athena the blood that had flowed from the veins of the Gorgon; while the veins of the left side spread a strong poison, the blood of the right side was healing, and Asclepius knew how to use it to bring the dead back to life.

The number of people he revived was considerable. They include Kapaneus, Lycurgus (probably in the war against Thebes, where two heroes of this name appear among the victims), Glaucus, the son of Minos, and the most frequently mentioned, Hippolytus, the son of Theseus. Zeus, seeing these revivals, feared that Asclepius would disturb the order of the world and struck him with lightning. To avenge Zeus, Apollo killed the Cyclops. After his death, Asclepius transformed into the constellation Ophiuchus.

Is Asclepius outside the mythical circle?

Some later accounts indicate that Asclepius participated in the Calydonian boar hunt and the Argonaut expedition. In general, however, Asclepius stands outside mythical circles.

Two children are attributed to him, the two physicians Podalirios and Mahaonas, who are already mentioned in the Iliad.

Later forms of the myth attribute to him a wife, Ipion, and daughters, Akeso, Iaso, Panakeia, Aigli, and Hygieia. The worship of Asclepius, attested at Trike in Thessaly, where it probably originated, established itself mainly at Epidaurus in the Peloponnese, where it developed into a veritable school of medicine, the applications of which, though based mainly on magic, nevertheless prepared the advent of a more scientific medicine. This art was practiced by the Asclepiads, or the descendants of Asclepius. The most famous of these is Hippocrates, whose family was associated with the god.

Common symbols of Asclepius were snakes coiled around a staff, as well as pine cones, laurel wreaths, and sometimes a goat or a dog!

The use of spear and sword by the ancient Greeks

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The Greek hoplite sword was double-edged. Its blade was wider in the middle of its length, so the weight was concentrated at that point, and the devastating blow to the enemy was even more overwhelming.

The Greek sword was also used for a penetrating blow. The sword was an auxiliary weapon of the Greek hoplites, who usually used it when the spear broke or could not be used due to space limitations.

However, they were not inferior in sword fighting to spear fighting. Various scholars often claim that Roman legionaries in their heyday were better swordsmen than other peoples who did not favor the sword, such as the ancient Greeks.

It should be noted, however, that the Romans used the heavy "gladius" type sword (gladius italiensis and later the stronger gladius hispaniensis), which did not require any particular skill to wield.

The Romans took advantage of its weight and shape, which allowed to fully use this weight to deliver a devastating blow against the opponent and also to destroy his shield if it was not made of metal (which was usually the case with the opposing shields of Rome).

In contrast, Greek swords were relatively light, with the exception of the Kopida (or 'knife' or falcata, or falx, as it was called in the western Mediterranean) and some other types. This evidence shows that the Greeks used a special technique in handling the sword to injure or kill their opponent.

Moreover, this opponent was usually a Greek hoplite, and there was no sword that could have shattered his sturdy brass hoplite shield with clumsy blows. Moreover, the hoplite was well armored with a helmet and breastplate of various types.

The only way for the Greek hoplite to strike into the flesh of his opponent with his sword was to improve his skills in the use of this weapon.

In summary, the Romans simply favored the use of the sword more than the Greeks, but without being better swordsmen than the latter.

The Spartans used the classical Greek type of sword with an iron blade. During the 5th century BC, they steadily reduced the length of the blade and, by the end of the same century, developed it further into a purely Spartan type. The explanation for this lies in the warfare of the Spartan, who tried to get as close as possible to his opponent in close combat, and in this he was irresistible.

In the confines of the phalanx, a sword that retained its nighttime (penetrating) power and was close to the length of a knife was most ideal.

Athenian reliefs confirm the ancient writers' references to the Spartan short sword. These reliefs often depict Lacedaemonians carrying a short sword up to 30 cm long in the shape of a tree leaf (roughly like the tip of a hoplite spear). The only example of this type of sword was found during excavations on Crete and was originally part of a statue.

The short length of the Spartan sword has led scholars to believe that it was also used for penetrating strikes from the bottom up. This is confirmed by some depictions of wounded or downed Lacedaemonians holding this sword in their hands and aiming upward at the abdomen or groin of their standing opponent.

Soon the short sword spread throughout most of Greece, displacing the older types. There is another weapon mentioned in ancient sources as being used by the Spartans.

It is believed to have been a type of knife, and based on the way it was used, it seems very likely that it was crescent-shaped. If so, the blade belonged to the group of crescent-shaped swords used by various Mediterranean peoples.

The Athenian hoplites also used the common hoplite sword, but it seems that some used the Kopida, although it was a sword more suitable for cavalry since its use required an open space.

The Kopida was a sturdy, single-edged sword with which a single, well-delivered blow could maim an opponent and sever an arm or leg.

Sickle swords were used by several Mediterranean peoples (Iberians, Celtiberians, Greeks, Thracians, Etruscans, Lycians, Carians, Lydians, Phrygians, Dacians, and others). In the confines of an armed conflict, the sword could not be used effectively.

But it could be used effectively by the hoplites against Asiatic and Egyptian warriors, since the fight with the latter was not of the nature of a battle between hoplites, and it's usually rapid breaking of the line gave the former plenty of room to destroy them quickly with the deadly blows of the Kopida (after all, the defensive armament of the Asiatics and Egyptians was rudimentary or nonexistent).

In general, the Athenians and other Greek hoplites favored the Kopida more than the Spartans. But even among them, the typical short sword prevailed.

On some Athenian vase paintings from the 6th to 5th centuries BC, Athenian hoplites are depicted with a kind of curved sword (the so-called "Yatagani" type). This sword probably originated in Asia Minor, from where it entered the Greek arsenal of the time, but it's rare depiction shows that it did not become popular.

Is the tomb of Alexander the Great in the Nabi Daniel Mosque?

It is the subject that stimulates the imagination, cultivates expectations and, of course, has managed not only to refute but also to ridicule quite a few archaeologists. According to Arabic tradition, the tomb of Alexander the Great is located in the Nebi Daniel Mosque. Scientists who let their imaginations run wild, fell prey to arbitrary assumptions, and completely ignored historical sources, searching in the most unlikely of places for the tomb of Alexander the Great have been misled in the worst of ways. And the great discovery of the Amphipolis monument leads to the revival of every possible version regarding where Alexander was eventually buried.

Certainly the tomb of Alexander the Great remains the... Holy Grail of archaeology. Most (and most serious) theories about the general's burial site come from Alexandria, Egypt, the city he founded. Alexandria is mentioned in historical sources while the magnificent mausoleum of Alexander in Alexandria was known. 

The Christian attack on Alexandria

One of the black pages in the city's history, however, was written in the late 4th century AD and possibly connected to Alexander. It is the great attack of the Christians under Patriarch Theophilus against the pagans, in which the Library of Alexandria, the Serapeion and the Museum were destroyed, while the famous "Mausoleum" was lost in the ruins. 

Alexandria, Kom el-Dikka Region 

Recent hypotheses include that of a sarcophagus in a crypt of an ancient Christian church in Alexandria, Egypt, attributed by Polish archaeologists and historians to Alexander. A masterpiece of architecture, the marble and gold mausoleum was found in the Kom el-Dikka area, in the crypt of an early Christian church in the heart of Alexandria, just 60 meters from the Nabi Daniel Mosque, where, according to Arabic tradition, the Nabi Daniel Mosque is the tomb of Alexander the Great and where excavations are already underway.

The tomb has been a place of pilgrimage for centuries. Famous visitors included Roman emperors such as Julius Caesar and Gaius Octavius, better known as Augustus, who is said to have placed flowers on the tomb, as well as a gold diadem on the mummified head of Alexander the Great. The last recorded visit to the tomb was by the Roman Emperor Caracalla - who had been an admirer of Alexander about a year before his assassination in 215 AD. The crystal sarcophagus discovered in the mausoleum contains 37 bones attributed to men. The team of Polish archaeologists and historians that made the discovery are examining the 37 bones - using the radiocarbon method and other tests - in the hope that they will be identified as Alexander.

Not only the crystal sarcophagus is affected. The sacking of the sarcophagus found during the riots that shook Alexandria under Aurelius around 270 BC also aimed at the bones, which are also broken. As for why the sarcophagus is made of crystal, a first explanation from the Polish team is that the original golden urn was stolen. And above all by the Ptolemaic king Parisaktos or Kokkis (107 - 68 BC). Broken vessels from the Ptolemaic and Roman periods have also been found at the site.

Tour guide Ambroise Schilizzi had claimed to have discovered Alexander's mummy in an underground chamber beneath the Mosque of Nabi Daniel. All this while looking through a tiny hole in the wooden door. The year is 1850. Fifteen years later, Heinrich Schliemann arrived in Alexandria to excavate the area around the mosque. He never received permission from the Egyptian authorities. 

Alexandria Roman Cemetery 

An alabaster tomb discovered in 1930 in the Alexandria Roman Cemetery has been attributed to Alexander by Italian archaeologist Achille Adriani. Investigations that followed in the years that followed yielded no results. 

Lebanon, Hills of Sidon 

Another "Alexander's tomb" had been discovered near the hills of Sidon in present-day Lebanon. This time... Indiana Jones was the painter and collector Osman Hamdi Bey. The sarcophagus is said to have been moved as a prominent exhibit to the Ottoman Empire Museum in Constantinople, where for a time it was an irresistible attraction for visitors. 

Venice, San Marco 

Yes, there was also this scenario, according to which the body of Alexander the Great was accidentally transported by two Venetian merchants who were convinced that it was the body of Saint Mark.

Egypt, Oasis of Shiva

Archaeologist Liana Soulvatzi had caused a "stir" in the mid-1990s when she "revealed" that Alexander the Great was buried in the Oasis of Shiva but the tomb was eventually four centuries older than Alexander's death. The story began in 1992 with the first monument he found, which she called the "Tomb of Alexander the Great" and continued in 1995 with the second monument, which she also found and, based on inscriptions, also called the "Tomb of Alexander the Great" negating the first.

In the sarcophagus of the pharaoh Nectanebo II

Another hypothesis is that the tomb was destroyed during the persecutions of Christians in Alexandria at the beginning of the 5th century, but also that the body of the great general was placed in the - empty - sarcophagus of Pharaoh Nectanebo II.

Uzbekistan, Eskandar

However, Uzbekistan also once proclaimed that it possessed the tomb of Alexander the Great, claiming that it was located under a canopy in the village of Iskender Zulkernai. The inhabitants of the village of Eskandar in Uzbekistan claimed that Alexander the Great was buried there (so did a reporter from Skopje who was there to report on the "discovery", which was presented in a Sun TV broadcast).

Amphipolis

Many would like the discovered funerary monument to be the general's tomb - although the Macedonian royal capital is Aiges and Amphipolis is not mentioned (or even hinted at) in the sources as a possible burial place of Alexander the Great.

Preserved synthrona of early Christian churches reminiscent of ancient Greek theaters

The ancient Greek theater, before it developed into a Hellenistic entertainment event and then into a Roman arena with beast battles, duels and bloody killings of innocent people to the delight of the enraged citizens of the Roman decadence, had a ritualistic and educational character.

Aeschylus gave to theater its character with the scenery, dialogues and extras and later, after Aristophanes it was desanctified. However, it still had a didactic character.

The early Christian churches on the contrary, the Churches with synthrona clearly had influences from the ancient theater and the Ecclesia of Demos. But it is also possible that its ritual, by Greek scholars and Greek-studied Christian philosophers, may have direct influences from ancient rituals.

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These are some photos of preserved synthrona of early Christian churches:

Agios Nikolaos, Demre, modern Turkey.

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Agia Irini, Constantinople, modern Turkey

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Hagia Sophia, Nice, modern Turkey

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Amoria, modern Turkey

Thessaloniki, Greece: The oldest mosaic floor with a representation of a palm tree in Europe will be located at the metro station Sidrivani

A richly decorated vine branch with grapes, in between sparrows eating the fruit or playing with the leaves, and in the center the mythical phoenix bird with halo and 13 rays on its head. This representation adorns the mosaic floor of a one-room cemetery church from the 5th AD Century, so far the oldest in Thessaloniki and the only one in Europe with a representation of a palm tree on the floor.

The mosaic floor was located under the sanctuary of the small church from the beginning of the 5th century AD, on which was built around the middle of the same century the three-nave basilica found during the excavations at the Sidrivani metro station in front of the building of the Theological School of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

The excavator of the basilica, professor of Byzantine archeology and art at AUTH, Melina Paisidou, says that "the palm tree as a central and dominant theme within a tendril surrounded by animals has no other equivalent on a mosaic floor in the European area".

Ms. Paisidou's many years of research have shown that floor mosaics with a palm tree are found in the Temple of the Holy Martyrs in Hama, Syria (442 AD), in the Temple of Umm Jerar in Gaza (6th cent. Century AD) in the Justinian Basilica of Savatra in Tripolitida (Libya), while corresponding mosaics have been found in the Arch of St. Peter in the Vatican and in sarcophagi from the 3rd and especially the end of the 4th century AD from the Vatican necropolis.

A representation of a palm tree is also found in the dome of the Rotunda in Thessaloniki, in the glorification of Christ, in a composition with concentric circles filled with plants and fruits, a rainbow and a starry sky surrounding the figure of Christ as an allegory of paradise. Of the depiction in the Rotunda, only the head of the phoenix with the nine-rayed halo and the beginning of its neck have survived. This has been called the only known representation of a palm tree in the Greek area. But the idea of the mosaic on the floor of the three-aisled basilica at the metro station Sidrivani, changes the facts.

"The palm tree, symbolizing immortality, incorruption and rebirth, with the halo on its head symbolizes Christ and is combined in the mosaic floor with the soteriological and Eucharistic content of the vine, which acts as a condition of immortality through the Holy Eucharist. Paradise is represented by the depiction of birds among the leaves, while the pecking of the grapes represents a participation in the Holy Eucharist," says Ms. Paisidou. According to her, 7 sparrows were found, but she estimates that there were 12 in total, as many as the Apostles.

Moreover, according to Ms. Paisidou, "the regenerative power of the phoenix, which is reborn from its ashes, and the uniqueness of its status led it to become a symbol of the eternal power of the Roman emperors. That is why the phoenix is depicted on Roman coins, namely on earlier coins from the Antonine era, but also on coins of the first Byzantine emperors of the 4th century, such as Constantine, Constantius II, Valentinian II and Theodosius I."

The myth of the palm tree contains common elements with the birth, death and resurrection of Jesus, while the bird's last appearance on earth, as noted in a Coptic text from the first half of the 6th century, coincides with the time of Christ's birth. The phoenix with its radiant halo, depicted on tombs of the first Christian centuries, symbolizes the victory of life over death and the bliss of heavenly life.

The sword of the Gothic warrior

The mosaic floor was found in the sanctuary of the one-room church of the cemetery, where seven tombs were excavated, including that of the Gothic warrior, who was buried with all his weapons, as part of the shield, the spearhead and his sword were found folded in half, as he would no longer use them. The custom of the folded (not broken) sword is known in Western Europe, but was found for the first time in Thessaloniki and in Macedonia in general, according to Ms. Paisidou and her partner, Errikos Maniotis.

As to the question of what a Gothic warrior was doing in Thessaloniki, the sources provide an answer: by the time of Theodosius II, in the middle of the 5th century - exactly as the tomb was chronologically placed, between 430 and 450 AD - Gothic mercenaries had settled in Thessaloniki and the wider Balkan region to protect the borders of the empire from enemy raids. In fact, especially in Thessaloniki, the Goths are associated with the bloodshed and the great massacre of 7,000 Christians in the Hippodrome in 390 AD.

In the bowels of the metro the three-aisled basilica

The one-room cemetery church from the beginning of the 5th century was destroyed and on its foundations, in the middle of the same century, the three-aisled basilica was built, with a visible length of 13.50 meters and a total width of 16 meters, belonging to the small basilicas. The impressive mosaic was kept at the base of the sanctuary, as it was considered a great work of art. Over the years, the temple was renovated twice, while in the 7th century it was destroyed either by Arab-Slavic raids or - most likely - by an earthquake, and finally, sometime in the 8th-9th century, it was abandoned.

"The location of the church, its early age, its duration and its repeated renovations make it one of the most important ecclesiastical institutions of Thessaloniki in the first millennium. It is possible that its construction is related to one of the famous Thessalonian martyrs of the persecution under Maximian and Diocletian. The gradual development of the building and the large adjoining rooms could also indicate a monastic institution of early Byzantine Thessaloniki," says Ms. Paisidou.

To whom was this temple dedicated? Research has not yet yielded any results on this question. The testimony of the French traveler Paul Lucas is considered quite serious, when in 1714, while walking in front of the Kassandreotiki Gate(or else Gate of Rome or Kalamaria Gate) and among the monuments, he saw the site of the once beautiful church of Agios Georgios, of which only 10 or 12 columns remain. In today's archaeological excavation, only the bases of the columns were uncovered, and according to Ms. Paisidou, this is "a charming hypothesis".

The archaeologists excavated, photographed and recorded the three-aisled basilica, for which the Central Archaeological Council had originally decided to move it to the AUTH campus, but a later decision gave it the green light to bury both the church and the seven tombs.

However, all the movable finds have been excavated, preserved and are on display in one of the museums being built for the metro's antiquities. Among them is the mosaic floor with the unique representation of the palm tree, which will be brought back to life.

This is the Trophy of the battle of Marathon

It is dated to 470-460 BC.

In September 490 BC, on the plain of Marathon, 10,000 Athenians and 1,000 of their allies from the Boeotian city-state of Plataea, under the command of General Miltiades, fought and defeated the army of the powerful Persian Empire. The battle led to the ignominious end of the first Persian attempt to subjugate Greece under the rule of Darius I.

On the column was probably placed the statue of Victory, in bigger size than natural and with lively movement.

According to ancient custom, the Athenians erected a wooden trophy on the battlefield, from which they hung the Persians' spoils of arms.

A few years later it was replaced by a monumental trophy made of white marble to commemorate the great victory over the Persians. On the column was probably placed the statue of Victory, in bigger size than natural and with lively movement.

Part of the Trophy is now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Marathon, while a copy of it is placed near its original location in Panagia Mesosporitissa.

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The Trophy was restored in 2004, preserving parts of the column and the capital. In 2016, the capital was completed by Professor Manolis Korre with two parts of the suffix.

You could visit the permanent exhibition of the Archaeological Museum of Marathon, where the history of the region from prehistoric to Roman times is presented through finds from the prehistoric cemeteries of Vrana and Tsepi, the burial mounds of the Athenians and Plataeans who fought against the Persians in the Battle of Marathon (490 BC).

Why Alexander the Great Abandoned the Proposal to Plan a City on Mount Athos?

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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The Vision Unfulfilled: Alexander the Great and the Unbuilt City on Mount Athos

In the annals of history, few figures loom as large as Alexander the Great, whose conquests reshaped the ancient world. Equally ambitious were his architectural and urban projects, which aimed to immortalize his legacy in stone and mortar. Among the most intriguing of these was a proposal to construct a city on Mount Athos in Greece (now an important center of Eastern Orthodox monasticism). The story of why this project was abandoned offers a fascinating glimpse into the practical considerations that underpinned even the grandest visions of antiquity.

Deinokrates the Rhodian, a renowned architect of the 4th century BC and a technical advisor to Alexander, is known for his significant contributions to ancient architecture. His works include the planning of Alexandria, the funeral pyre of Hephaestion, and the reconstruction of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. However, his proposal for a city on Mount Athos stands out for its audacity and the rationale behind its rejection.

The Proposal

When Alexander sought a location for a new city that would bear his name and reflect his greatness, Deinokrates proposed Mount Athos, a site known for its majestic natural beauty and strategic location. The plan was not merely to build a city but to carve Alexander's effigy into the mountain, creating a monument of unparalleled scale. This effigy would depict Alexander holding a city in one hand and pouring water from a bottle with the other, symbolizing his dominion over both land and sea.

In the only surviving architectural treatise from antiquity, Vitruvius mentions Deinokrates for conceptualizing the carving of one side of Mount Athos with the colossal effigy of Alexander the Great embracing a small town (10,000 residents) with one hand, holding a bottle with the other, and pouring water into a river while touching the sea with his feet.

"I," he said, "have thought, O King, to entrust the image of your body to an incorruptible and living substance, which has eternal foundations and an immovable and unshakable weight. This is Mount Athos in Thrace, where it has its greatest volume and rises most prominently and has a symmetrical height and width and rocky areas and intervals of some form. Athos is strong in the art of processing and transformation, it shall be called Alexander's statue and be his true statue, which will touch the sea with his feet, embrace and support with one hand a city that can hold 10,000 inhabitants. With his right hand holding a bottle, he shall pour libations over the entire river that flows ceaselessly and pours into the sea in honor of the gods. Let’s abandon the idea of the gold and the copper and the ivory and the wooden and colored works, which are easily stolen."

The Rejection

Alexander's decision to abandon this grandiose plan was rooted in practicality. Deinokrates, for all his architectural genius, had overlooked the essential needs of the city's future inhabitants. The rugged terrain of Mount Athos was unsuitable for agriculture, making it impossible to grow grain or sustain a population. All necessities would have to be transported by sea, a logistical challenge that would undermine the city's viability. In contrast, the site chosen for Alexandria in Egypt offered fertile land, access to the Mediterranean, and the potential for a thriving urban center.

The Legacy of Deinokrates

Despite the non-realization of the Athos project, Deinokrates's legacy is cemented through his other works. Alexandria, in particular, stands as a testament to his vision, with its innovative grid layout, sophisticated water supply, and drainage systems. These contributions exemplify the blend of artistic vision and engineering prowess that characterized Hellenistic urban planning.

Deinocrates, in collaboration with Paionius and Demetrius, rebuilt the Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, which had been destroyed by Herostratus on July 21, 356 BC, the day on which, it is said, Alexander the Great was born.

Reflections

The tale of the unfinished city on Mount Athos serves as a reminder that even in antiquity, practical considerations limited the most ambitious plans. Alexander's empire was built on the twin pillars of visionary ambition and pragmatic governance. The decision to prioritize the needs of his people over architectural marvels reflects a leader who understood the importance of sustainable development.

Moreover, Deinokrates's proposal, though never realized, speaks to the human desire to leave a lasting mark on the world. The project envisioned for Mount Athos was not just an architectural endeavor but a symbol of the intersection between nature, divinity, and human achievement. It encapsulates a moment when ambition brushed against the limits of feasibility, leaving behind a tale that continues to inspire and caution future generations.

In September 2015, after the presentation of the results of the excavation team of the Kasta Tomb based on the research carried out from 2012 to 2014, it was announced that the monument was built by order of Alexander the Great, and the builder was Deinokratis.

In sum, the unbuilt city on Mount Athos serves as a poignant narrative of ambition, practicality, and the enduring quest for immortality through architecture. It reminds us that history is not just a record of what was built but also of what could have been, offering lessons that resonate far beyond the ancient world.

Journey to Delphi, the navel of the Earth

The viewer of the new interactive tour through the Sanctuary of Delphi, created by the cultural center "Hellenic World'', is first asked if he has ever been to the "navel of the earth" as a visitor. The answer is given by pressing the corresponding button on the seat of the "Dome", the hemispherical virtual reality theater of the "Hellenic World" where the tour is presented, and frankly, it doesn't really matter what one answers. Because whether he has set foot in Delphi or not, he will be taking a complete virtual journey for young and old through the space and time of the Delphic sanctuary and oracle, which for centuries was a cult center and a symbol of the unity of the ancient Greek world.

The start is as it would have been in ancient times: from the meeting point of the religious processions at the beginning of the "Sacred Road", the central axis of the Sanctuary of Delphi. Citizens, princes and representatives of entire cities marched on it, especially from the 6th to the 4th century BC, when the Delphic Oracle was in its heyday, who had come to ask for an oracle and who expressed their gratitude to Apollo with impressive offerings.

These tributes have survived only in the descriptions of Pausanias, on which the interactive tour of the "Hellenic World '' at Delphi is based (as well as on the excavation results). And as it turns out, they were brilliant votive offerings: The bronze bull that the Corfu citizens dedicated to their god after a great fishing success in 480 B.C., the 37 statues with which the Spartans commemorated their victory over the Athenians at Aigos Potamos in 405 B.C., the statue of the Trojan Horse that the Argeans commissioned in 414 B.C. to commemorate their victorious battle with the Spartans at Therea, they are depicted here in all their glory with the help of technology.

"Now let us turn our gaze to the left," exhorts through the microphone the "Hellenic World" museum educator who has taken over the live "guided tour" of Delphi, asking educational questions to encourage audience participation. What is seen now is the "Treasure of the Sifneans", one of the most magnificent and decorated buildings of the Sanctuary of Delphi, which served as the treasury of the inhabitants of Sifnos and their own offerings.

The best preserved part of the building is the north side of the frieze, where the giant battle is depicted. However, with the help of virtual reality, it is possible to see the other representations of the frieze, such as the Judgment of Paris or the Abduction of the Leucippids, in their true colors. In the corresponding building in Athens, the "Treasury of the Athenians", the viewer has the opportunity to enter the interior and admire a variety of vases, weapons and other tributes, while another impressive Athenian votive, the "Stoa of the Athenians", is also presented in its original form.

Encounter with Pythia

And when you come to the temple of Apollo, when you "look" at the bronze statue of the god (dedicated to him by the Greeks after the naval battle of Salamis) up close, when you "marvel" at the tripod of Plataea (which was transferred to Constantinople in 324 AD ), when you admire the column with the dancers, the Sphinx of the Naxians and some other important monuments, above all, when you enter the sanctuary of the temple (leaving behind the inscriptions with the sayings of the seven sages of antiquity or the mysterious Delphic "E" in the Pronaos), when you "meet" Pythia and hear a taste of her oracles, you now feel, as far as technology allows, all of Delphi before your eyes.

The ancient theater is depicted in great detail, and the view of the Delphic landscape from its upper part is magnificent. In that way the virtual reality presented in the previous 40 minutes ends, for which a team of 3D modelers, programmers, archeologists, but also the executive director of the Greater Hellenism Foundation and head of its research and science programs, Dimitris Efraimoglou, were responsible.

The world of Greek clay figurines

For centuries in ancient Greece, figurines were made of baked clay, as it was one of the most malleable and cheapest materials. But for a long time they were considered insignificant mass products. The special exhibition "Perfection and mass - The world of Greek clay figurines" ("Klasse und Masse. Die Welt griechischer Tonfiguren") at the internationally renowned "Altes Museum" in Berlin puts the spotlight on the often underrated clay and an equally undervalued art form. The focus is on the richness of colorful figural representation as well as the production, use and reception of ancient clay figurines. It ties them back into the historical context of their use, opening up a new perspective in scholarly research for the organizers.

The 56 selected figurines, which will be shown together with other individual objects that have rarely or never been exhibited before, such as ceramic and marble statuettes, come from the famous "Collection of Antiquities" (Antikensammlung) of the National Museums in Berlin. It is a collection of ancient Greek, Roman and Etruscan works comparable to those of the Louvre and the British Museum, surpassed only by their counterparts in Italy and Greece, according to the newspaper "Die Welt". The entire "Collection" was exhibited for the first time in 72 years in 2011 in the "Old Museum" which was renovated after the reunification of Germany, as it preceded the Second World War, the transfer to the Soviet Union and the return to what was then East Berlin. The exhibits provide an overall picture of the diverse world of ancient clay figurines and illuminate many aspects of everyday life in ancient Greece.

Clay was used in antiquity not only for the mass production of figurines accessible to the common people, but also for individual, colorful figurines that were very elaborately crafted. These benches were also popular among the ancient social elite. Among them are unique pieces of great value, as evidenced by the impressive "Venus of Haile" (140 BC) found in Myrina in Ionia. The famous clay statuette was acquired in 1930 by the Maican Maximilian von Heil and is considered the masterpiece of the "Old Museum". It depicts the goddess in a garment that glides over her body with incomparable elegance. The former "Queen of Prussia", as the "Süddeutsche" newspaper described her in its first report twelve years ago, is missing the ends of her arms and one leg.

From the 7th century BC, the potters increasingly used hollow molds of fired clay with which they could produce an entire series of similar figures. Their partial use for the head or the body led to numerous combinations and variations. Each finished mold could in turn serve as a die for another generation of figurines. With the help of molds, they could be easily copied or distinguished from each other. However, this technique was used not only to produce mass figures, but also unique figures of very high quality.

In 1870, ancient clay figurines called "Tanagraia", were found near Tanagra, elegant and colorful figurines of young women with artfully folded clothing, mostly tunic and robe, which made this genre famous and established a real fashion. The depictions of mostly young women and their clothing corresponded to the taste of the European bourgeoisie of the time and quickly replaced the then popular - also small - porcelain figurines as decorative elements in living and dining rooms, as the bourgeoisie saw in the figures an equivalent to them. On the art market, the Tanagraia reached top prices, but they eventually ended up in museums. Among them were many fakes, and it was not until the end of the 20th century that scientific research was able to clarify which ones were genuine. In the 19th century, clay figurines were downgraded to mere decorative elements, but artistically some of them could definitely compete with small sculptures. Some from the Hellenistic period, according to experts, even reach the perfection of large sculpture. The masterful figures of Tanagra and Myrin date from this period.

Today, they also impress with their intense colors, some of which are amazingly well preserved and give an impression of the color spectrum that also dominated sculpture. In the 4th century BC, the color palette was expanded, and expensive colors such as blue and gold were used, as well as pastel shades such as pink and light green. From the 3rd century BC, pastel colors predominated, while some particularly important ones were additionally gilded. Their color spectrum changed over the centuries: before the 5th century BC, they preferred clear and bright colors such as red and yellow, but then potters also experimented with shades and light reflections. In painting, garments were highlighted and details or features of the figures were emphasized. Observing such details also makes it possible to reconstruct the lost colors of the marble sculptures, since the ancient colorings in them are rarely preserved as well as in the clay statuettes.

We now know that many of them also played an important role in the daily life of people in ancient Greece, providing us with important information, from social norms to religious beliefs. The scenes and motifs depicted seem almost taken from real life and had important functions in many aspects of life. From myths to bread baking, a variety of subjects were recorded in clay. Findings in tombs, shrines, and houses indicate that the figures were used for very different reasons. Many of them played an important role in religious worship, being consecrated to shrines on certain occasions in life: in the case of women, for example, on the occasion of their marriage and motherhood. In private houses they were placed as part of a domestic cult for the protection of the family. In necropolises, they were found mainly in the tombs of young people as substitutes for objects that would have been consecrated to the gods during ceremonies marking important milestones on the way to adulthood. The function and meaning of the figurines in this context is still being intensively researched.

What did orator Demosthenes say about ancient Macedonians?

By Sarantos I. Kargakos

Had it not been for Demosthenes' slanderous characterizations against Philip - especially against Alexander - the question of the Greekness of the Macedonians would not have been raised. Every supporter of this opinion relies on Demosthenes. The other data they put forward are merely supplementary elements, which have no historical weight.

We could consider Demosthenes' insults as an outburst of political passion that drives him into the madness of insults and that's all. When someone insults, he does not mince words. That is why Demosthenes often calls Philip the barbarian, knowing that he is insulting and humiliating him. But if Philip was a barbarian (foreigner), why should this characterization bother him? Even with this designation, Demosthenes wants to portray Philip as a foreigner who usurps the freedom of Greece in order to unite all Greeks against him. In politics, the end justifies the means.

But the extent to which Demosthenes' characterizations are accurate can be seen in the insults of his great rival, Aeschines, who also calls Demosthenes a barbarian!

In particular, in the famous "On the False Embassy" oration,the insulting phrase is heard twice: "And you say this, Demosthenes, although your lineage on your mother's side is descended from Scythian nomads". And again: "On his mother's side, Demosthenes is a Scythian. A barbarian who uses the Greek language!"

His mother Demosthenes Kleoboulis was the daughter of Gylonos, who had settled in the Taurian peninsula (Crimea). But I ask: Are insults a solid basis for the scientific foundation of historical theories? With this I do not want to bypass the only "document" that Mr. J.B. quotes. Rather I will present all insults of Demosthenes chronologically in order to be able to draw the necessary conclusions. Before doing so, however, I will avoid mistaking the great orator for a common insulter and examine the meaning of the Demosthenes-Philip dichotomy, which reflects the dichotomy of the democratized southern Greek cities versus the monarchical Greek north. One element is that the Greeks had a politics of city-states. They had a city-centric view. The city was the center of all political action. In other words, Athens, Sparta, Thebes were important cities.

Statue of Demosthenes

Macedonia, on the other hand, was a state with many cities, but they were not so important that they determined political life. Thus, the state-centered monarchical system of the northern Greeks contrasted with the city-centered democratic system of the southern Greeks. Demosthenes' opposition to Philip was thus not racial, as many propagate. It was politics. If Philip had in mind the Great State, Demosthenes, who had grown up with other political ideals, had in mind the Great Man, "the free in justice". The Citizen, not the servant of the state. The personality and character and not faceless political being. Therefore, he remained faithful to the idea of "Athenism". Only Athens gave him some guarantees for the State of Free Citizens.

Demosthenes did not reject the idea of Panhellenism. But he gave it cultural meaning. Philip made a realistic policy. Demosthenes from the 4th century BC imagines a federation of cities with a democratic form of government. Philip, on the other hand, sought a unity of Greeks by all means. He was a Machiavelli who did not write, but acted. Therefore, the conflict between Demosthenes and Philip was not a conflict of races, but a conflict of visions.

Yet despite noble visions, neither shied away from mean means. After all, they were engaged in politics, not religious preaching. Macedonia and Philip were what Prussia and Bismarck were to Germany. If Bismarck expected to unite Germany with Kant's wonderful vision of perpetual peace, he should have eternal life as well. But the politicians who create eternal work are those who know that life is short and time is running out.

Let us now turn to the "shocking" document that J.B. quotes:

"Not only a non-Greek and not related to the other Greeks, but not even a barbarian from any place that could be called with any honor, but like a pestilent knave from Macedonia, where one cannot even buy a decent slave" (The Third Philippic, Demosthenes' political orations ). But let us see what Demosthenes himself says: "Not only is he not a Greek, nor has he anything in common with the Greeks, but he is not even a barbarian of good stock, but a pernicious Macedonian, from whose country one cannot even buy a slave."

The reader should note that Mr. J.B. commits a scientific indecency. He translates "pernicious Macedonian," which is indeed a heavy epithet, with the phrase "pestilent knave from Macedonia," which has no correspondence with the original. No Greek researcher denied that this text, because of its verbal severity, raises the suspicion of an ethnic division between Greeks and Macedonians. It is also not absent from any Greek historiography, ancient or translated. However, what Mr. J.B. seems to ignore the psychology of language, i. e. a word that means something specific, is used with a different meaning in a specific case. We all know, for example, what history means.

Statue of Philipp of Macedon in Thessaloniki, Greece

But you have to know the psychology of the Greek language to understand the phrase "we will have histories", which means entanglements, struggles, and so on. We all know what politics means, but few know that politics in the medieval Greek language meant also whore! So, in order to understand Demosthenes' phrase, we need to know the psychology of language, which means that in relation to Philip, we need to trace the psychological transitions or upheavals that Philip's politics triggers in him. We begin with an observation: of the nine orations Demosthenes made against Philip, Philip is called a barbarian in only three (the relevant part in the "Against Stephanos" oration is a later addition). But let us start with the orations from the beginning:

1. In the "First Philippic" oration against Philip, written when the Macedonian king had reached Thermopylae and was also threatening to cut Athens off from the allied cities of Thrace and Euxinus, Demosthenes uses harsh language but never calls him a barbarian. Neither in the First nor in the Second Olynthiac oration.

2. Philip is first called a barbarian in the Third Olynthiac oration: "He is not an enemy, he does not possess what is ours, he is not a barbarian, whatever else one may say". The last sentence ("whatever else one may say") shows that the previous word "barbarian" is also used as an insult and not as a national designation. Demosthenes here stigmatizes Philip's behavior and not his origin.

3. In 346 BC, Demosthenes delivered his "On the Peace" oration. Philip has already conquered Olynthos, crushed the Phocaeans, and become a member of the Delphic Amphictyony. But now that the threat is more immediate, Demosthenes says nothing in his speech about Philip being a barbarian. Yet it would have been a wonderful opportunity for him to denounce before all Greeks that a barbarian had become a member of the amphictyony in which only Greeks participated. The reason why he did not do this is simple: he knew that all Greeks knew that Philip was not a barbarian.

4. In 341 BC, Demosthenes delivered the "On the Chersonese" oration,which is a war cry against Philip, who is not called a "barbarian" here either. And yet Demosthenes had just returned from Macedonia, where he had gone as an ambassador and stayed for three months. Therefore, he had the opportunity to learn the language, customs and traditions of the Macedonians. If he thought they were barbarians, why would he miss such a wonderful opportunity to comment on them? 

5. A year later, he delivers the "On the False Embassy" oration and while he sharply characterizes Philip, he still says nothing about barbarism. This oration is of a legal nature and is directed against Aeschines, the leader of the "Macedonian party" in Athens. His aim is to show the opportunism and political immorality of Aeschines and to point out his contradictions. Specifically, he says of Aeschines, "Formerly he preached before the people and called Philip barbarian and destructive. But now Aeschines calls him the most Greek of men and the greatest friend of Athens!". With this rhetorical trick Demosthenes tries to expose Aeschines in the eyes of the Athenians as well as in the eyes of Philip.

6. Finally, in "third against Philip" is found the sentence to which J.B. refers and modifies in the translation. In this oration from 341 (three years before the battle of Chaeronea) Demosthenes, desperate to see Philip's omnipresence, has lost control of his words, treats Philip like a gladiator, and uses the worst insults against him. This verbal frenzy and verbal jibes are aimed at insulting Philip personally and his country in general. This is also evident in the sentence of the ancient commentator of Demosthenes, who examines the characterization of "barbarian" in the third Olynthiac:

"Because Demosthenes wants to insult Philip, he calls him a barbarian. But if he really wanted to investigate, he would find that he is a Greek from Argos, descended from the lineage of Hercules, as all historians confirm."

Statue of Alexander the Great in Thessaloniki, Greece

Personally, I do not like simple interpretations. Demosthenes has a political goal in the sense that he wants to destroy Philip by any means. He sees the Macedonian monarch as an enemy of Greek freedom, i.e. the autonomy of the Greek cities. Therefore, with the last sentence, he actually wants to portray him as a foreigner in the eyes of the other Greeks and the Macedonians as foreigners seeking Greek independence in order to achieve a panhellenic alliance against them. So passionate is he that he does not hesitate to recommend to the Athenians an alliance with the Persians against Philip (Fourth Philippic):

"I think you should send a legation (to the Persians) to converse with the Persian king, leaving aside the silly phrase "the barbarians are the common enemy of everything and everyone".

Thus Demosthenes frees the Persian king from the status of barbarian and assigns it to Philip, whom he also calls "the robber of the Greeks" and implores the gods to destroy him.

How could the Parthenon remain standing for 2,500 years without a foundation?

The mystery is revealed after studies showed that the Parthenon Temple on the Acropolis is triple seismically shielded despite the fact that it has no foundation.

According to civil engineer Niki Timotheu, studies of the temple's architectural and structural form have shown that the ancient world had already discovered what we now call "seismic isolation". According to Niki Timotheu, the temple successfully contradicts the theory of modern construction because, without having a foundation at all, it is triple seismically insulated.

This triple insulation is located, as she explained, in different parts of the building. The first point is in the layers of huge horizontal and extremely smooth marble stones on which the Parthenon stands.

The second point is found in the elastic metal joints that connect the slabs of each layer, made up of small iron piles in the middle, around which lead has been poured (lead has the property of protecting iron from rust and weakening the elasticity of each wave, since part of its kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy).

And the third point is found in the columns of the building, which were not set in one piece, because the ancient Greeks knew that in order to withstand the vibrations of the earth, they had to be set in slices that were perfectly superimposed.

The result of this triple insulating formula, as Mrs Timotheu noted, was that the seismic waves on the surface moved one layer of the marble slabs over the other, while the joints dissipated the kinetic energy developed by the earthquake! The columns, as they were arranged, made the whole building sway, but not collapse.

Haloa: The "obscene" feast of ancient Greece

Haloa was one of the festivals that the ancient Greeks systematically celebrated every year in honor of the goddess Demeter, known as Haloea (goddess of the fruits of the earth), Dionysus (god of the vine and wine) and Poseidon Fytalmios (god of coastal vegetation).

Haloa was a three-shaped peasant feast of antiquity, and the customs of worshiping the gods in this context cause us to call this celebration "obscene". A second opinion is that they were also celebrated in honor of Persephone, the daughter of Demeter.

The Haloa were held around Attica and extended to Eleusis, where they ended, then followed the Poseidonian procession and finally the initiation into the mysteries of Demeter and Persephone.

There are two versions about the period of this celebration: the first one says that Haloa was celebrated in the month of June (Ekatombeonas) with the harvest of the Spartans and the second one in the month of December (Poseidon) with the harvest and the opening of the new wine. In Haloa, no hierophant participated, but a priestess who initiated the women, and all exchanged free speeches and conversations, and at the end there was a common dinner. The dinner included all foods except those forbidden in the ceremonies (eggs, pomegranates, etc.). But why was it called "obscene"?

In this celebration, the women had with them figurines in the shape of sexual organs and food in the corresponding shapes of phallus and vulva. At the end of the meal, they buried the phalluses in the ground, believing that in this way vegetation and fertility would be strengthened.

In Haloa, among other things, obscenities were exchanged between all the women, even the priestess urged the married women to commit adultery and they danced orgiastically with each other. From the 4th century BC, hetairas participated and women flocked to the streets and danced to provocative songs.

Hetairai at Haloa festival dancing around a giant phallus (Oedipus Painter, 480 BC) By Wikipedia

In general, Haloa was a festival of women in ancient times and was celebrated at night, although the preserved information is insufficient compared to other customs of the ancient Greeks. Moreover, there are two versions of the conceptual origin: the first states that Haloa means the threshing floor according to Philochorus, the second that it means the vines according to the commentator Lucian.

The Haloa festival lasted several days, at the end of which athletic competitions like the Olympics took place, in which not all citizens of ancient Athens were allowed to participate, as was customary in other celebrations. However, in this celebration the young people had the right to speak publicly.

From the above it is clear why Haloa is characterized as an obscene celebration of antiquity, because in modern times the use of strange effigies and provocative dances with obscene vocabulary is not common, although in antiquity it was a habit and considered normal.