The 'Red Basilica' (Kızıl Avlu): The Monumental Ruined Temple in the heart of Bergama city

The "Red Basilica" (Turkish: Kızıl Avlu), also called variously the Red Hall and Red Courtyard, is a monumental ruined temple in the ancient city of Pergamon, now Bergama, in western Turkey. The temple was built during the Roman Empire, probably in the time of Hadrian and possibly on his orders. It is one of the largest Roman structures still surviving in the ancient Greek world. The temple is thought to have been used for the worship of Egyptian gods – specifically Isis and/or Serapis, and possibly also Osiris, Harpocrates and other lesser gods, who may have been worshipped in a pair of drum-shaped rotundas, both of which are virtually intact, alongside the main temple.

Although the building itself is of an immense size, it was only one part of a much larger sacred complex, surrounded by high walls, that dwarfed even the colossal Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek. The entire complex was built directly over the River Selinus in a remarkable feat of engineering that involved the construction of an immense bridge 196 metres (643 ft) wide to channel the river through two channels under the temple. The Pergamon Bridge still stands today, supporting modern buildings and even vehicle traffic. A series of tunnels and chambers lies under the main temple, connecting it with the side rotundas and giving private access to different areas of the complex. Various drains, water channels and basins are located in, around and under the main temple and may have been used for symbolic reenactments of the flooding of the Nile.

The temple was converted by the Romans into a Christian church dedicated to St John but was subsequently destroyed. Today the ruins of the main temple and one of the side rotundas can be visited, while the other side rotunda is still in use as a small mosque.

West view of the Red Basilica

History

The temple's date of construction is not recorded, but from the style of the sculptures and the building techniques a date in the first half of the second century AD has been proposed. Its use of red brick on a massive scale, unique in Asia Minor but relatively common in Italy at the time, indicates that the architect was not local. The immense size and lavish construction of the complex points to an extremely wealthy patron who sent a Roman architect and brick masons to Pergamon to build the temple. The most likely candidate is the emperor Hadrian himself. He is known to have been an enthusiastic sponsor of the Egyptian gods; he built temples of Isis and Serapis at various places in the Roman world, including at his own villa in Tivoli.

At some point during the Christian era the temple was gutted by fire. It was not restored, but was redeveloped in the 5th century AD as a Christian basilica, built inside the shell of the destroyed temple. Arcades were built dividing the interior into a central nave and two side aisles. The eastern wall was demolished and replaced with an apse. The floor level was raised by about 2 metres (6.6 ft), obscuring the original Roman floor, though the former floor level has since been restored by archaeologists. The church was probably destroyed by the forces of the Arab general Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik, who besieged and looted the city in 716–717 during his unsuccessful bid to conquer Constantinople. Pergamon fell into Turkish hands in 1336 and the building was converted into a mosque.

Interior of the temple, showing the podium and (left) the base of the cult statue. Smaller statues of the gods would have stood in the side alcoves.

The complex has been investigated and excavated in a series of campaigns by the German Archaeological Institute. In 1906–1909 P. Schazmann prepared detailed drawings of the ruins during a German excavation of the Hellenistic city. The temple and temenos were excavated by Theodor Wiegand from 1927. New archaeological studies were carried out from 2002 to 2005 under A. Hoffmann. Restoration efforts have also been pursued, first in the 1930s under O. Bayatlı, the Director of the Bergama Museum, and later in the 1950s and 1960s. Further restoration work was conducted on the main temple in 2006 and the south rotunda was restored between 2006 and 2009.

Description

The temple was built in the lower city of Pergamon at the foot of the hill on which the ancient city's acropolis stood. It was located at the eastern end of what was originally an immense sacred precinct or temenos, 270 m long by 100 m wide (890 ft × 330 ft), which was surrounded by stone walls standing at least 13 metres (43 ft) high. Most of the temenos was destroyed and built over long ago, but substantial fragments of the walls remain standing to a height of 13 m today. The main entrance lay on the western side of the temenos through a colossal marble gateway; smaller gateways were located on the same side, north and south of the main gate. From there, visitors walked some 200 metres (660 ft) to an immense propylon (or monumental gateway) in front of the temple, supported by a row of columns standing 14 metres (46 ft) high.

The temenos was built on top of the River Selinus, presumably because the person who commissioned the complex wished it to be located in the city centre rather than in an outlying district. As the city was already substantially built up, the river bed offered an otherwise unused location for the temple complex and reduced the number of properties that would have to be demolished to make way for it. The river was channelled into two tunnels passing diagonally for a distance of about 150 metres (490 ft), northwest to southeast, under the temenos and temple. This structure, the Pergamon Bridge, still stands today and continues to drain the river underneath the complex.

Photo from the end of 19th century

Use and purpose

The temple was certainly used to worship Egyptian gods, as the presence of Egyptianised atlantids indicates. Which specific gods were worshipped there is, however, unclear. An inscription referring to the temple mentions "Serapis, Isis, Harpocrates, Osiris, Apis, Helios on a horse ... Ares and the Dioskouroi". Another inscription mentions Serapis, and a small terracotta head of Isis was discovered in the area of the temenos. One of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri from Egypt refers to Isis as ὲν Περγάμῳ δεσπότις ('she who rules in Pergamon'). The temple may well have been dedicated to Isis, though some historians have interpreted it as a Serapeum (temple of Serapis) instead. The two rotundas may have been used for the worship of Horus and Anubis.

The layout of the temple provides more clues about how it was used. Unlike Greek temples, where the entire building was considered to be the house of the divinity, the god worshipped in the "Red Basilica" was confined to the eastern half of the temple. Similar layouts are found in other Isis and Serapis temples elsewhere in Asia Minor and Greece. The temenos is a vastly enlarged equivalent of enclosures found elsewhere in Greek mystery sanctuaries, such as the one as Eleusis in Greece where the Eleusinian Mysteries were performed annually. The purpose of its high walls was to prevent outsiders from witnessing ceremonies held within the temenos and temple precinct, thus preserving the mystery of the rituals.

The ancient cult complex in an 18th century gravure

Water appears to have been a central theme of the ceremonies held at the temple, judging from the number of water features (basins, troughs and so on) in the complex. The basins outside the temple may have been purely decorative but those inside seem to have been intended for use in ceremonies. These may have included purification rituals – sprinkling the faithful with water – and possibly also a ritual re-enactment of the flooding of the Nile. Robert A. Wild suggests that the deep basin dividing the temple into its eastern and western halves may have been designed to convey flood- or rainwater into the temple during peak rainfall periods in the winter. The basin also served to separate the public western half of the temple from the sacred eastern half. Initiates may have been taken through the underground passages to the cultic area, where they would be presented to the worshippers filling the western end of the temple. Something of this nature is hinted at by Apuleius in Metamorphoses: "There in the middle of this sacred temple before the image of the goddess I was made to stand on a wooden pulpit."

Aizanoi's Unique Theater-Stadium: Exploring the Confluence of Ancient Culture and Sport

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BY DIMOSTHENIS VASILOUDIS

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In the ancient world, grand structures and edifices served not just as expressions of architectural prowess but also as centers of community, culture, and entertainment. The theater and the stadium were two such central structures, each with their own distinctive purposes and architectural nuances. However, one site stands apart in the way it combines these two unique entities. This place is the Aizanoi, located in present-day Avdarhisar, Turkey, with its spectacular, side-by-side complex of a theater and a stadium, a rare combination that is said to be unique in the ancient world.

Aizanoi: A Cultural Landmark of Antiquity

The Aizanoi, settled around 3000 BC, is a landmark of immense historical significance. The city reached its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD under Roman rule, when many of its most iconic structures, including the theater-stadium complex, were built. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2022, Aizanoi offers an extraordinary glimpse into the past, with the theater and stadium standing as testaments to the city's rich cultural heritage.

• Origins and Early Settlements

Aizanoi's beginnings are deeply rooted in the Bronze Age, which extended from about 3300 BC to 1200 BC. The region that would eventually become Aizanoi was inhabited by various cultures during this period. Its favorable geographical position near the River Penkalas (today known as the Kocaçay) offered abundant resources, making it an ideal location for early settlements.

While archaeological evidence from the Bronze Age in Aizanoi is sparse, the area was certainly inhabited during this era. Bronze Age cultures in the region were known for their metalwork, ceramics, and the development of early writing systems. Unfortunately, due to the extensive Roman and later constructions, much of the Bronze Age artifacts and structures in Aizanoi have been lost or remain undiscovered.

In front of the temple, formerly part of the acroterion , stands a big bust of a female. It seems to have been her that led to the conclusion the temple was dedicated to both Zeus and Sibyl.

Author Dosseman

• The Development of Aizanoi

Aizanoi flourished as a city under the Phrygian and, later, the Hellenistic periods. But it reached its zenith during the Roman era, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The city became a crucial economic and cultural hub, known for its production of grain, wine, and wool.

Aizanoi was adorned with grand structures, including temples, bridges, baths, and the unique theater-stadium complex, reflecting the city's prosperity. The Temple of Zeus in Aizanoi, one of the best-preserved temples in Anatolia, showcases the city's significance during this period.

• Post-Roman Aizanoi and Modern Rediscovery

Following the decline of the Roman Empire, Aizanoi became part of the Byzantine Empire and later fell under Seljuk and Ottoman rule. Over centuries, the ancient city was largely forgotten and eventually buried under layers of earth until the 19th century, when European archaeologists began to excavate and rediscover its historical significance.

The city was rediscovered by European travelers in 1824 and surveyed and identified between the years of 1830 and 1840. The scientific excavations within Aizanoi were launched in 1926 by D. Krencker and M. Schede on behalf of the German Archeological Institute, and presently the excavations are being carried out by Pamukkale University.

The city of Aizanoi offers a fascinating glimpse into the progression of human civilizations, from its Bronze Age roots to its peak in Roman times. Despite many of its ancient secrets remaining shrouded in mystery, the city's unique architectural gems, like the theater-stadium complex, provide invaluable insights into the cultural and societal practices of antiquity. The ongoing archaeological efforts hold the promise of revealing even more about Aizanoi's significant past.

At some distance from the temple there are several burial stones and similar monuments displayed. This is a view from that area.

Author Dosseman

Aizanoi's Unique Theater-Stadium Complex

The theater and stadium of Aizanoi are intricately connected structures, built adjacent to each other and separated only by a colonnaded street. This union is rare, as these two types of buildings were typically separate, serving distinctive purposes and catering to different types of crowds.

The theater, a semi-circular structure built in the traditional Roman style, could house approximately 13,000 spectators. Decorated with finely carved stone seats, the theater served as a focal point for cultural and social activities, hosting performances that ranged from tragedies and comedies to musical recitals. The theatrical performances often reflected society's values, fears, and aspirations and played a crucial role in civic life.

Adjacent to this lies the stadium, designed for athletic competitions and games. A long, U-shaped track encloses a field used for various sports, including chariot races, wrestling, and running races. Capable of accommodating up to 20,000 spectators, the stadium's design is influenced by Hellenistic models, aligning with the Greek ideal of a healthy mind in a healthy body.

 

A masterpiece of architectural design

The theater and stadium that make up the entertainment and cultural complex are situated in Aizanoi's northern region. It represents the significance of the city and the prosperity of its citizens in earlier times. The theater and stadium in Aizanoi were constructed next to one another, creating a complex that is thought to be one of a kind in antiquity. The staging structure divides the two. Excavations and study conducted between 1982 and 1990 revealed that the building's construction began in 160 AD and continued through the middle of the third century AD. Many inscriptions were discovered and restored to their original locations while repairs were being made to the eastern side of the stadium's entrance. The fact that M. Apuleius was named in the inscriptions of the main bridge and made a significant contribution to the construction of this complex is revealed by these inscriptions.

The stadium's seating rows are polygonal, therefore the construction widens in the middle. There is a door on the western side, where it is widest. The only façade of the stadium that faces the theater is a marble-covered wall. This is also the rear of the stage in a theater. The marble fragments may still be seen today in the stadium's north. This façade wall's low pedestal has a Doric design. There are two levels, and the tall Attika floor with an arch is located on top. The theater's stage was adorned with priceless marble ornamentation. Throughout history, there have been numerous earthquakes that caused these decorations to fall upon the seated rows. The building was initially constructed with only one story, according to researchers who looked at the marble carvings on the stage. As the stadium was later expanded, a second storey was constructed. The front of the structure, composed of cut limestone, had a relatively tiny percentage of the marble components that were still in place. These broken marble fragments include sections of a frieze that shows a hunting scene.

According to estimates, the stadium could hold another 13,500 spectators, while the theater could hold 20,000. Yet, the architectural design that allowed them to be built adjacent to one another, forming an entertainment complex, is what makes this dual structure special, not its size. The stage building separates the theater from the stadium, which is next to it. It is a singular solution since archaeologists have not discovered a similar one from prehistoric times anywhere else in the world.

Regrettably, both structures were severely destroyed by the periodic earthquakes. Only a portion of the theater's audience and stage have been retained in this instance. The bottom level of the theater frequently floods in the spring. A intact portion of the wall with carved medallions bearing the names of the winners may be seen on the right side of the stadium when viewed from the main road.

The Significance of the Adjacency

The proximity of these two structures in Aizanoi is an architectural marvel, symbolizing the coexistence of different forms of entertainment in antiquity. The construction of such a complex would have required not just a significant investment of resources but also a certain vision that appreciated and valued both the cultural and physical elements of entertainment.

Moreover, the combined complex could have facilitated larger gatherings and events, including city-wide festivals, where the activities might have ranged from theatrical performances to sporting events. It's a testament to the city's organizational capabilities, suggesting an advanced level of societal development.

The theater-stadium complex of Aizanoi is indeed unique in the ancient world. It paints a vivid picture of a city where art, culture, and athleticism coexisted, enriching society. It's an extraordinary testament to the architectural ingenuity and societal structures of the time, providing insights into a past that celebrated diversity and inclusivity in its entertainment forms.

Today, the Aizanoi stands as a symbol of our collective heritage, a testament to the ancient world's architectural prowess, and an invitation to revisit and appreciate the complexities and grandeur of the past.

The Spectacular Shipwrecks of the island Sapienza in Greece

The islets located to the south and west of the coast of Messinia in Greece are not well known to the public, but they hide their own surprises, with Sapienza being the most typical example among them.

Sapienza belongs to the so-called Messinian Oinousses and is located off the southwest coast of Messinia, directly opposite Methoni, near the deepest point of the Mediterranean. No one lives there anymore.

The heart-shaped islet near the lighthouse of Sapienza

Sapienza is located on a maritime route which, since ancient times, was of great commercial and strategic interest, as it connected Italy with the Middle East. At the same time, however, it was also a difficult area, full of strong sea currents, strong winds and difficult rocks. As a result, several shipwrecks occurred on the coasts and off the island, some of which are considered important from an archaeological point of view.

The exceptional findings found in them make the Methoni marine area one of the most important underwater archaeological sites.

 

The latest sea surveys in the bay of Methoni and the island of Sapienza in Messinia have brought to light unknown wrecks that have been lying on the seabed for hundreds of years, while both known wrecks on the northern shores of the island of Sapienza have been mapped in detail for the first time.

Geoarchaeological investigations were also carried out in the submerged settlement of the Middle Bronze Age that has been identified in the bay of Methoni.

The identified shipwrecks belong to the most recent times and one to the era of the Turkish occupation.

The scanner even showed "metallic targets", probably cannons. The findings will be examined in detail in the future.

The two shipwrecks (along with a third, older one) were found on top of the Bronze Age settlement, part of which is buried under the bottom sand and is ultimately larger than archaeologists had previously thought.

Shipwreck of Sarcophagi

On the neighboring islet of Sapienza, on its northern shores, the two known shipwrecks of Roman times were captured in detail for the first time.

The first is known as the Shipwreck of Sarcophagi because it carried stone sarcophagi. The shipwreck is lying at a depth of 15 m. ts cargo contains a number of stone sarcophagi including their covers. The sarcophagi are intact except for one, which probably ruined when the ship sunk. The sarcophagi measures 2.20 x 0.80 m.
The sarcophagi bear reliefs; their decoration is simple containing floral motifs, boukranion etc. The covers are curved with simple, shaped decoration at the edges. The shipwreck is dated to the 3rd century AD.

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Shipwreck of columns

The second is called Shipwreck of Columns because there were some columns made of red granite.

Around 1920, local fishermen located archaeological finds lying on the seabed close to the northern cape of Sapienza (Cape Karsi), opposite the village of Methoni.

In 1925, the lawyer and historian Dionisios Potaris (1860–1922), following fishermen's indications, located and recorded the ‘marbles’, in a distance of 50–60 m from the northern shore of Sapienza and in a depth of 6-7 m. He correctly assumed that the pile of marbles was actually a shipwreck transferring antiquities.

The ‘shipwreck of columns’ lies at a depth of 10 m, close to Cape Spitha. The columns are scattered over an area of 30 m2 and are 10 m away from the edge of the Cape. Parts of the columns are aligned and situated at the seabed, while other parts are scattered in a wider area around them.
34 fragmented, plain, single stone columns were located. Only one of them is intact, with a height of 8 m and diameter of 0.90 m. 28 parts of the columns are concentrated, and the remaining 6 are situated at a distance of 60 m from the rest.

The columns are made of reddish granite, similar to the columns positioned in the Fortress of Methoni. The admiral Francesco Bebo positioned this column in 1493/4 in memory of the recovery of the Fortress by the Venetians. Therefore, it is assumed that the ship sank earlier. This particular type of granite exists only in Egypt and in particular areas of Greece (Xanthi, Kavala, and Mykonos Island).

Studies of the column fragments showed that the columns were part of a building containing 16 columns that was demolished or collapsed.
The ship had these columns as part of its cargo. The fragments of the columns are broken irregularly, and they cannot be connected between them. Some of the columns are circular on top, as they were used for tying up the ships close to the ‘mole’.

The results of the geophysical survey are expected to provide important information on the wider location of their sinking.

In fact, in this particular area, it is planned to become an underwater archaeological park in the future.

Roman Crocodile Armor is the Closest Thing Reality has to Dungeons & Dragons gear

In the past, we've examined some hilarious forms of body armor for both human and hound.But in terms of sheer flamboyance, it's hard to beat this suit of Roman crocodile armor from the third century, AD.

It's unclear if this suit bestows any sort of defense bonus against ochre jelly, so you'll have to ask a nonplussed curator if you can try it on. This priceless suit — which was discovered around Manfalut, Egypt preserved in a grotto — was ceremonial garb typical of the neighborhood crocodile cult. The Egyptians weren't the only culture to use crocodile skin for clothing, but this regalia is perhaps the most magnificent. As the British Museum explains:

In Egypt Roman garrisons were closely integrated into civic and religious life and participated in local cults. Around Manfalout, on the banks of the Nile in central Egypt, Roman soldiers were particularly attracted to the crocodile cult centred on the sacred grottoes of the region. This imposing armour is made from the skin of a crocodile. It comprises a helmet and cuirass (body armour) and would have been used in military-style ceremonies of the regional crocodile cult.

It's giving me flashbacks to Serpentor from G.I. Joe, but then again, most things do.

Author: Cyriaque Lamar - gizmodo

Excavations started in Tharsa Ancient Roman Necropolis, modern Turkey (Photos & Video)

Excavations have started in the Roman period Tharsa Ancient City in Adıyaman, where there are 60 family tombs.

In the rural area of ​​Kuyulu village, excavations started last year in the ancient city of the Roman period, where the family cemetery is located. Museum Director Mehmet Alkan, who examined the ancient city of Tharsa, stated that there were 60 family graves in the area and said, "We found 60 graves in the excavations we carried out here in 2021.

We cleaned our 20 burial chambers. We aim to clean 25 or 30 chamber tombs this year," he said.

Museum Director Alkan stated that the history of the region dates back to 1800 years, and that the ancient city will be opened to tourism once the works are completed.

The Impressive Mosaic Floor with a Representation of a Chariot Race in Cyprus

It is an impressive mosaic floor, which stands out both for its good condition and for the high quality of its construction and can be dated to the first half of the 4th c. AD, that came to light during an excavation at the site of Piatkia, in Akaki, Nicosia Province in 2015.

The excavation was carried out under the supervision of the Archaeological Officer, Dr. Phryni Hatzichristofi, with the help of the archaeologist, Dr. Vasiliki Lysandrou, and lasted nine weeks.

According to the announcement of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus, during the first excavation period, in 2014, building remains were found at a minimum depth below the ground. A huge tank measuring 10 × 14 m occupies a special place in the area. to mark the eastern end of the building, as well as four parallel carvings on the natural rock.

Chariot race representation

The excavation so far has revealed a part of the mosaic, which depicts a representation of chariot races in progress inside a racecourse and in rich geometric decoration. The virtual scene includes tethrips, in which the driver is depicted standing, fighting around the spina.

Each chariot is accompanied by two inscriptions. The steeple depicts three columns ending in three bronze dolphins, from which water flows, and a temple. Among the chariots appear a man on horseback and two pedestrians holding one whip and the other a vessel of water.

Although the building has not yet been identified, the presence of this mosaic floor in a remote area of ​​the hinterland offers new important data for this period in Cyprus and adds to our knowledge of the use of mosaic floors on the island.

Why Saint Sisoi, the Christian Desert Monk is Depicted Mourning Over the Tomb of Alexander the Great?

The Saint of the Orthodox Christian Church, the hermit, desert monk Sisoi, has been depicted for hundreds of years in hagiographies over the open tomb of Alexander the Great.

Saint Sisois is an enigma for both classical and Byzantine archaeology. Specialist scholars try to interpret the symbolism of the relevant hagiographies (the first of which date back to the 14th century AD) and also to answer convincingly the question: Did Saint Sisois really saw the tomb of Alexander the Great?

The existence of Saint Sisoi was pointed out by Mr. Sotiris Athanaselis, Professor of Toxicology at the Medical School of the University of Athens. Specifically, Mr. Athanaselis in his extensive letter entitled "The Tomb of Alexander the Great in Christian Hagiography" writes: “From my first visit to this amazingly hagiographed church, I was struck by a mural-hagiography of Saint Sisoi who is located in front of the open tomb of Alexander the Great (!)” and exclaims:

‘Seeing you, grave, I am terrified and frightened at your sight and I shed tears from my heart, bringing to my mind the debt that all people have to pay (that is, death), so I will suffer also such an end. Oh, you death, who can avoid you?'

“This scene, as depicted in the mural (image below), in addition to the impression it caused me, also created some reasonable questions which I tried to investigate with relative - I confess - success since the whole subject has nothing to do with my profession.”

Original inscription:

“Ορών σε τάφε δειλιώ σου την θέαν και καρδιοστάλακτον δάκρυον χέω, χρέος το κοινόφλητον εις νουν λαμβάνων, πως ουν μέλλω, διελθείν περας τοιούτον. Αι, αι θάνατε τις δύναται φυγείν σε;”

The disciples of Saint Sisoi, who are considered to be the first to depict the relevant scene, describe it as follows:

'Sisoi the Great in Asceticism in front of the tomb of Alexander the Great, frightened from the glorious past, sorrowful about the restlessness of time and temporary glory, behold he mourns'.

Saint Sisoës the Great (also Sisoi the Great, Sisoy the Great, Sisoes of Sceté or Shishoy was born in 367 and died in 429 AD. He was an early Christian desert father, a solitary monk pursuing asceticism in the Egyptian desert in a cave of his predecessor, St Anthony the Great He consecrated in the desert of Thebes in Upper Egypt. His memory is celebrated on July 6 and belongs to the first generation of great hermits who followed Antonios the Great. In ascetic and hagiological texts he is characterized as ‘Osios (= saint, monk) Sisois’ or ‘Abbas (= father) Sisoi’.

Sisoës was a Copt by birth. Having withdrawn the world from his youth, he retired to the desert of Sceté, and lived some time under the direction of his teacher, Abba Or. The desire of finding a retreat yet more unfrequented induced him to cross the Nile and hide himself in the mountain where St. Anthony the Great died some time before.

Saint Sisoës the Great at the tomb of Alexander the Great (16th c., Varlaam Monastery, Meteora), signifying the remembrance of death (Memento mori).

The monastery of Abba Sisoi, in the valley of Nitria in the Wadi el Natroun region of Egypt is one of the ancient monasteries of the Scete, the cradle of Christian monasticism, which have been operating since the 4th century AD. The monastery contains the relic of Saint Sisoi which is said to be perfectly preserved on a red cloth.

The monks claim that it is not uncommon for Saint Sisoi to perform miracles for the true believers and is also considered one of the most important saints of the Coptic Christians in Egypt. His first depictions, in the 16th century, depict him as a respected elder. Saint Sisois is always depicted, in all the hagiographies, next to the tomb of Alexander the Great, reflecting on the futility of life and the inevitability of death.

But why Alexander the Great and not someone else?

Koukouli of Zagori

It should be noted that similar hagiographies to that of Koukouli have been recorded in many places in Greece, including the Monastery of Megisti Lavra and the Monastery of Xiropotamos on Mount Athos, the Monastery of Barlaam in Meteora (1566) and the Monastery of Megisti in Kastelorizo. It is also depicted in Churches of Kastoria as in the chapel of Agios Ioannis the Theologian in the Monastery of Panagia Mavriotissa (1552), in St. Nikolaos Theologinas (1662) and in the church of Ioannis Prodromos in the Apozari district (1727). A similar depiction exists in the Monastery of the Greatest Brigadiers in Milies of Pelion (1774). To all of this should also be added the relatively later depiction in the church dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin in Koukouli, Zagori (1788).

Monastery of Panachrantos, Megara

Of particular importance is the hagiography of Agios Ioannis the Theologian in the Monastery of Panagia Mavriotissa, in which Saint Sisois is depicted in front of an open tomb, where together with the skeleton of Alexander the Great are depicted also two other skeletons. According to one acceptation, this is a declarative element of the posthumous equality of kings and non-kings.

But does this depiction indicate the burial of Alexander the Great in polyandry?

In the hagiography of Koukouli a different thing (and unique in relation to the other hagiographies) is that on the head of the skeleton of Alexander the Great there is a golden crown.

Prodromos, Apizari

Dorotheus, Bishop of Tire (255-362 AD), when he returned from exile during which he had worked as a slave in the mines of the oasis of Zion in Egypt, stated that its inhabitants were pagans and worshiped the Egyptian god Ammon, but also Alexander the Great who was buried there. Knowing the extensive discussions that have taken place and are taking place to locate the exact location of the tomb of Alexander the Great, we can wonder why Saint Sisois is always depicted in front of this tomb?

Mavriotissa

Had Saint Sisois really found the tomb of Alexander the Great somewhere where he was a monk? Is this what the relevant hagiography shows the depiction of a real event? If the exact routes of Saint Sisoi are searched and located, will the legendary tomb of Alexander the Great be located? These are definitely very interesting questions to answer.

Russian style

The question posed by the case of Saint Sisoi is whether its depiction should be taken as "literal" or studied for its symbolic meaning. In the first acceptation, the analysis must focus to the investigation of the historical data about a visit of Sisoi to the tomb of Alexander the Great. In the second, however, archaeologists emphasize how the hagiography reflects "the fear of the death of the entire Byzantine world that has seen an empire collapse and philosophize on the futility of the world".

Movable image of the 16th c. Hermitage Museum.

Also, the fact that in the depictions of Saint Sisoi appears the tomb of Alexander the Great, seems to be a later addition, probably of the Theban hagiographers Georgios and Frankos Kontaris, who in 1556 painted the Monastery of Barlaam, in Meteora. So while until then Osios Sisoi was presented over an open tomb of a stranger, after the intervention of the two brothers he was found above the …sarcophagus of Alexander the Great, precisely to emphasize even more the futility of the worldly.

Introit of St. Sisoi:

14 Best-preserved and Most Amazing Ancient Theatres of Graeco-Roman Antiquity

Scattered around the Mediterranean lie the remains of the ancient theaters of the Greek and Roman world. The Greek theaters were large, open-air structures constructed on the slope of a hill. Roman theaters, although heavily influenced by the Greeks, have specific differences, such as being built upon their own foundations.

The theater originates from the city-state of Athens where it was used for festivals honoring the god Dionysus and the famous Athenian tragedy, comedy, and satyr plays. The Romans, being a little bit less philosophical in spirit than the Greek, wanted more pure entertainment with lots of laughs and excitement. Popular entertainments in Roman times included mime plays, acrobatics, jugglers, animal fights and gladiator fights although the later two were more common in the Roman amphitheater.

14. Theater of Taormina

Taormina was a Greek colony on the east coast of the island of Sicily. The theater of Taormina was built by the Greeks in the 2nd century BC and restructured and widened by the Romans. The ancient theatre is beautiful situated, overlooking the bay of Naxos and mount Etna. Today it is the center of the Taormina’s international film festival.

13. Jerash Theatres

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Jerash is a popular archaeological site in Jordan, second only to Petra. The city’s golden age came under Roman rule and the site is now generally acknowledged as one of the best preserved Roman provincial towns in the world. Jerash contains not one but two Roman theatres. The north theatre, with a capacity of 1600, was built in 165 AD and was mainly used as the city council chamber. The larger south theatre was built between 90-92 AD and could seat more than 3000 spectators.

12. Odeon of Herodes Atticus

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The Odeon of Herodes Atticus, cut into the southern slope of the Athenian Acropolis, was built in 161 AD by Herodes Atticus in memory of his wife. The structure was used as a theatre in ancient Athens for various plays and music concerts. It originally had a wooden roof and could seat up to 5,000 people.

11. Roman Theatre of Merida

According to an inscription, the Roman Theatre of Merida in present-day Spain was built in 16 BC by order of Agrippa, a general and friend of emperor Augustus. The ancient theatre could house up to 6,000 spectators. In later centuries the theater underwent several restorations which introduced new architectonic elements and decorations. The structure was restored to the current state in the 1960s-1970s.

10. Roman Theatre of Amman

The Roman Theatre of Amman in Jordan was built during the reign of Marcus Aurelius in the 2nd century AD. The large and steeply raked theatre could seat about 6,000 people. It is cut into the hillside and oriented north to keep the sun off the spectators. The theatre was built on three tiers: the rulers, sat closest to the action, the military had the middle section, and the general public sat on the highest section. Although far from the stage, even there the actors could be clearly heard, owing to the steepness of the theatre.

9. Pergamum Theatre

Pergamum was an ancient city founded by Greek colonists on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Although Pergamum is one of Turkey’s lesser known archaeological sites it contains a number of notable structures, including the theater. The Pergamon theater was built in the 3rd century and could seat 10,000 spectators. It is one of the steepest ancient theaters in the world.

8. Theatre of Side

Side is a popular resort town on the Mediterranean coast of southern Turkey. The city was founded by Greek settlers in the 7th century BC and was one of most important trade centers in the region. In 25 BC Side became part of the Roman province Galatia and prospered through its trade in olive oil and slaves. The roman ruins of Side that are in fairly good condition today include a temple, city gate and an ancient theatre which could seat about 15,000 to 20,000 people.

7. Theatre of Sabratha

Located in Libya, Sabratha’s was established around 500 BC as a Phoenician trading-post and reched its peak under Roman rules as a coastal outlet for the products of the African hinterland. The Theatre of Sabratha was built in the 2n century AD. The structure appears largely intact owing to its reconstruction by Italian archaeologists in the 1930s. The theatre had 25 entrances and could seat approximately 5,000 spectators.

6. Roman Theatre of Orange

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The Roman Theater of Orange in France is a well preserved theatre build in the 1st century AD for watching theatrical performances. After the Roman Empire declined the theatre was closed by official edict in 391 AD as the Church opposed what it regarded as uncivilized spectacles. The ancient theatre was restored in the 19th century and today it is home of the summer opera festival, the Chorégies d’Oran.

5. Great Theatre of Ephesus, Asia Minor

The ruins of Ephesus are a popular tourist attraction on the west coast of Turkey. The city of Ephesus was once famed for the Temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, which was destroyed by a mob led by the archbishop of Constantinople in 401 AD. Some of the structures can still be seen however including the impressive Great Theater. This large theatre, which was capable of holding 25,000 spectators, was used initially for drama, but during later Roman times it was also used for gladiator fights.

4. Aspendos Theatre, Asia Minor

Aspendos boasts one of the best preserved ancient theatres of antiquity. Located in south-west Turkey, the theatre of Aspendos was build in 155 AD during the rule of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius and could seat between 15,000 and 20,000 spectators. Because the stage area was later used as a caravanserai (a roadside inn) in Seljuk times, it was continuously repaired and maintained. Thus, the Aspendos Theatre has been able to survive to this days without losing almost any of its original qualities.

3. Delphi Theatre, Greece

In ancient times Delphi was the most important site in ancient Greek religion, home to the sanctuary and oracle of Apollo. The ancient theatre of Delphi in Greece was built on a hill giving spectators a view of the entire sanctuary and the spectacular landscape below. It was originally built in the 4th and could seat 5,000 spectators.

2. Bosra Theater, Syria

Situated 140 Km south of Damascus in Syria, Bosra is an ancient city that was already mentioned in the 14th century BC by Egyptians hieroglyphs. The city was conquered by the Romans in 106 AD who made it the capital of their Arabia province. The theatre of Bosra was built in the 2nd century AD and could seat up to 15,000 people. Because a fortress was built around the theatre by the Ayyubids it is now one of the best preserved Roman theatres in the world.

1. Epidaurus Theater, Greece

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The theatre of Epidaurus, located on the northeastern corner of the Peloponnesus in Greece, was constructed in the 4th century BC. It is still one of the most beautiful Greek theatres in the world. Unlike Roman theatres the view on a lush landscape behind the scene is an integral part of the theater itself. The theatre of Epidaurus is famous for its exceptional acoustics. Actors on stage can be perfectly heard by all 14,000 spectators, regardless of their seating.

Roman Aqueduct of Nikopolis, Greece: The Ancient Technological Marvel that harnessed the Headwaters of Louros River

The Romans managed to build an impressive, unique for the time, aqueduct that supplied water to an ancient megalopolis

BY HARRY SIMVOULIDIS - TRANSLATED BY ANGELIKI KOUROUTZI - TRAVEL.GR

Thanks to its excellent preservation over the centuries, ancient Nikopolis gives modern visitors the opportunity to admire the architecture and urban planning of the Romans. What is still impressive, however, is its aqueduct: a unique project for its time, based on a 50-kilometre-long network, which allowed the exploitation of the headwaters of the Louros river.

Nikopolis is the “child” of a transitional but pivotal period in which Rome was transformed from a republic to an empire. It was built in 31 BC, as a symbol of Octavian Augustus‘ great victory at Actium, against Marc Antony and Cleopatra – in a naval battle that always had a Greek “colour”, since Cleopatra was the last queen of Egypt descended from the Macedonians who arrived there with Alexander the Great.

Nikopolis also became a lever of Romanization and control of the whole of western Greece, since many inhabitants of other cities of Epirus and Acarnania were forced to leave them, moving there permanently. It survived until the 11th century, when it was abandoned by the Bulgarians. However, it was not destroyed in terms of infrastructure. And the fact that no later settlement was founded in its place helped to keep it in good condition, given its age.

The monumental aqueduct may well have been constructed as early as the time of Octavian, although the views of more recent scholars converge towards the 2nd century AD, during the period when Hadrian was emperor. Until it was built, the Nikopolitans obtained water through barrels, which they filled either at various wells or from small springs.

Through the aqueduct, we estimate that the needs of about 150,000 people were served

Photo: Pericles Merakos

The Romans were renowned for their engineering and topographic skills, thanks to which they had already equipped their country with an exemplary water supply system. Even so, however, in Nikopolis they achieved a technological wonder for their time, creating an extensive 50-kilometre-long network using Louros’ headwaters, ensuring an adequate water supply for Nikopolis. Today we believe that it was not a medium-sized city, but a megalopolis of about 150,000 inhabitants.

As a whole, the project consists of alternating systems of arched, overhead aqueduct systems with arches (necessary for the bypass of the Louros valley), combined with above-ground trench pipelines, as well as a tunnel dug in the hills of Kokkinopilos. Through a pipeline, water was transferred from Louros’ headwaters to two reservoirs in the Nymphaeum of Nikopolis, from where it was then piped through smaller pipelines to the rest of the city.

Remains of the aqueduct can still be seen at various points in the wider area, giving the visitor the opportunity to admire the mastery with which the Romans made use of the difference in altitude between Louros’ headwaters and Nikopolis – which amounts to about 80 metres –, ensuring that the aqueduct sloped slightly as it approached the sea. They even ensured that there were ventilation openings on the slopes and piers in the lowlands.

Around 350 the Emperor Julian financed extensive maintenance work, so we are sure that the aqueduct was still in operation in the early Byzantine years. It seems to have been abandoned when the area entered irreversible decline after the chaos caused by the disastrous Ostrogothic invasion in 551.

How to get there

Built on the peninsula that separates the Amvrakikos Gulf from the Ionian Sea, ancient Nikopolis is located 8 km north of the town of Preveza. The access by road is very easy, via the Preveza-Ioannina highway.

 

The remains of the aqueduct at various points along its route to Nikopolis can also be visited. You can therefore pass by the sites of Archangelos, Stefanis and Skala Louros, as well as the section that survives at Louros’ headwaters – in the village of Agios Georgios, a few kilometres north of the small town of Filippiada.

X-rays Could Reveal Secrets of Vesuvius rolled Herculaneum Papyri

A team of researchers, using beams of x-ray light, hope to reveal the writing locked away within 2,000-year-old charred papyri from Herculaneum.

For more than 200 years scholars have been attempting to read what remains of heavily charred scrolls rescued from the library of a luxurious villa destroyed during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. At that time, Herculaneum’s buildings were buried under layers of ash, and the hot gases turned the library into an oven in which the abandoned scrolls were flash-heated and transformed into fragile rolls of carbonised papyrus resembling lumps of coal or burned logs.

Rolled Herculaneum Papyri

Excavations of the site started in 1709 but were abandoned. In 1980 around 1,800 scrolls were discovered, finding homes in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Naples, the Institut de France in Paris, the British Library in London, and Oxford’s Bodleian Library. The question for scientists now is how to read something that is illegible, and locked away in a complex matrix of tightly rolled, blackened and compacted material that is too fragile to touch, with ink that quickly fades once exposed to air.

Herculaneum

Traditional means of physically opening these scrolls result in extensive and irreparable damage to theoriginal materials. Over the centuries, these methods have included everything from immersion in water to pouring mercury through the rolls to suspension in various gases. The current common practice is to carefully cut away the hardened outer layers and then to attempt to separate and unroll the more flexible central layers. Even under the best of circumstances, much of the text will be lost through this process, and the final result will only be a fragmentary record of the original.

The first stage uses the Diamond Light Source synchrotron to probe the scrolls with beams of x-ray light. These very bright x-rays can penetrate the scrolls and map their internal structure in a completely non-invasive and non-destructive way. The x-rays pass through the scrolls and are detected on the other side to create a series of two-dimensional images that can then be stitched together to create a three-dimensional model of the scroll.

Prof Seales is director of the Digital Restoration Initiative at the University of Kentucky (US), a research program dedicated to the development of software tools that enable the recovery of fragile, unreadable texts. According to Seales, 

Diamond Light Source is an absolutely crucial element in our long-term plan to reveal the writing from damaged materials, as it offers unparalleled brightness and control for the images we can create, plus access to a brain trust of scientists who understand our challenges and are eager to help us succeed. Texts from the ancient world are rare and precious, and they simply cannot be revealed through any other known process. Thanks to the opportunity to study the scrolls at Diamond Light Source, which has been made possible by the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Andrew Mellon Foundation, we are poised to take a tremendous step forward in our ability to read and visualize this material. The scan session promises to be a key moment in our quest for a reliable pathway to reading the invisible library.

MICRO COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY, DATA ACQUISITION, ANALYSIS AND VIRTUAL UNROLLING

The second stage involves the fragments of papyrus that are the result of previous efforts to physically unroll the papyri. These fragments, which have writing on them that is visible to the naked eye, are photographed, scanned and the results fed into computers.

Micro-CT has only become commercially available in the last decade, but it is well suited to the study of objects such as papyrus scrolls. The scans provide a non-destructive method to visualize the interior of the scrolls, without the necessity of physically opening them. CT can be immensely helpful as a tool for planning and condition assessment. It shows fracture lines within the scrolls, as well as other damage that may be hidden within the object.

Micro-CT slice showing the scroll structure surrounded by the cast polyurethane container. These images are “end-on” views at about the midpoint. At higher resolution (right) the interior portions show surprising, unpredictable structure.

Complex computer algorithms (machine learning) are used to teach the computer to recognise the subtle structural differences between the inked and blackened areas (such as differences in the structure of papyrus fibres).

After the computer has been trained on these fragments, the idea is to apply it to the data from the intact scrolls collected at Diamond Light Source and, hopefully, reveal the text hidden within.

3D structure from micro CT scan. Scale shot with writing (photograph) fixes the scale expectation for the small “unwrapped” portions (15mm square), which show papyrus structure as vertical and horizontal stripes. Changes in intensity are from a multi-power, registered scan.

Given a high enough resolution scan, and the ability to segment layers within a scroll, a computer simulation can virtually unroll a scroll, revealing its original form. Assuming contrast between ink and papyrus, the ink features can then reveal the original text, without necessitating an invasive and damaging physical unrolling. Scientists have developed such software and algorithms, which have been tested on a number of proxy objects. However, the Herculaneum papyri present unique challenges to this system.

External laser-based surface scan supports a 3D proxy used to make a mold. This mold is used to create a polyurethane container to hold the scroll in a vertical orientation inside the micro-CT scanner.

We have collected the first scan of Herculaneum papyri using micro-CT, allowing visualization of the interior of these scrolls without the risk of major damage to them. These scans show the internal structure of the rolls, including fissures, fractures, and air gaps. This knowledge could inform any physical intervention or conservation plan for these papyri. Initial data analysis has been slowed by the complex nature of this internal structure. Automated segmentation for separating layers within the scrolls has been virtually impossible. Manual segmentations have yielded success in viewing small regions of the scrolls, though no ink has yet been visible.

(a) The alphabet letters from A to N (alpha to nu) as revealed by the XPCT experiment, primarily from the innermost region of the papyrus, where the individual coils are more distinguishable, are reported on lines 1 and 2; on line 3 the infrared images of the same letters from the unrolled papyrus PHerc. 1471, which was used as a reference for the writing style of the scroll PHerc.Paris. 4. Printed capital letters of the ancient Greek alphabet are given below line 3. (b) The alphabet letters revealed by the XPCT experiment from Ξ to Ω (xi to omega).

Fortunately, little to no damage was done to the scrolls by this non-destructive scanning process, thus preserving the scrolls for future study. Based on CT scans of similar objects, we know that our “virtual unrolling” method has merit, and if a procedure can be developed to increase ink contrast, another scan has the potential to reveal much hidden text.

Largest Roman Mosaic found in London for 50 years discovered in Southwark!

The mosaics will be moved off-site to allow more detailed conservation before eventually being put on public display

By Jonathan Prynn Consumer Business Editor @JonPrynn

The largest Roman mosaic found in London in more than 50 years has been uncovered by archaeologists in a “once in a lifetime” discovery near the Shard.

Specialists from Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA) have revealed two decorated panels set in what is once thought to have been a dining room - or triclinium - dating from the late second or early third century AD.

The larger section measuring 5m x 3.5m shows large, colourful flowers surrounded by bands of intertwining strands – a motif known as a guilloche.

The smaller fragment of 1m x 1.5m has a simpler design, with a two examples of a pattern known as Solomon’s knot, two stylized flowers and geometric motifs in red, white and black.

Experts believe the dining room might have been part of a Roman mansio – an upmarket ‘motel’ of the classical world providing rooms, stabling, and dining for couriers and officials travelling to and from Roman Londinium.

It was sited on the outskirts of Londinium next to the river crossing that led into the city and not far from the main road connecting it to other important centres including Canterbury and Dover.”

MOLA’s site supervisor Antonietta Lerz, says: “This is a once-in-a-lifetime find in London. It has been a privilege to work on such a large site where the Roman archaeology is largely undisturbed by later activity-when the first flashes of colour started to emerge through the soil everyone on site was very excited.”

The mosaic was revealed ahead of construction of a major new homes, shops, and offices scheme called the Liberty of Southwark being developed jointly by property company U&I and Transport for London.

The mosaics will be moved off-site to allow more detailed conservation before eventually being put on public display.

A number of hugely important mosaics have been discovered in London including the Bucklersbury mosaic uncovered in 1869 and now at the Museum of London, and the Leadenhall Street mosaic pavement found in 1803 on display in the British Museum, Smaller.

The Very First Alphabet Scripts of Eastern Mediterranean and Europe: Phoenician - Euboean - Etruscan

A script is any particular system of writing or the written means of human communication. It is also a kind of early human technology, a basic form of communication that began simply as lists of goods and evolved into a more sophisticated means of conveying thoughts and feelings, and this, in time, became the script in which the literature of the culture was set down.

The Phoenician alphabet

The Phoenician alphabet is an alphabet (more specifically, an abjad) known in modern times from the Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions found across the Mediterranean region.

The Phoenician alphabet is also called the Early Linear script (in a Semitic context, not connected to Minoan writing systems) because it is an early development of the pictographic Proto- or Old Canaanite script into a linear, alphabetic script, also marking the transfer from a multi-directional writing system, where a variety of writing directions occurred, to a regulated horizontal, right-to-left script. Its immediate predecessor, the Proto-Canaanite, Old Canaanite or early West Semitic alphabet, used in the final stages of the Late Bronze Age, first in Canaan and then in the Syro-Hittite kingdoms, is the oldest fully matured alphabet, thought to be derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs.

"Phoenician proper" consists of 22 consonant letters only, leaving vowel sounds implicit—in other words, it is an abjad—although certain late varieties use matres lectionis for some vowels. As the letters were originally incised with a stylus, they are mostly angular and straight, although cursive versions steadily gained popularity, culminating in the Neo-Punic alphabet of Roman-era North Africa. Phoenician was usually written right to left, though some texts alternate directions (boustrophedon).

Beginning in the 9th century BC, adaptations of the Phoenician alphabet thrived, including Greek, Old Italic, and Anatolian scripts. The alphabet's attractive innovation was its phonetic nature, in which one sound was represented by one symbol, which meant only a few dozen symbols to learn. The other scripts of the time, cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, employed many complex characters and required long professional training to achieve proficiency, which restricted literacy to a small elite.

Another reason for its success was the maritime trading culture of Phoenician merchants, which spread the alphabet into parts of North Africa and Southern Europe. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in archaeological sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and Carthage in North Africa. Later finds indicate earlier use in Egypt.

The alphabet had long-term effects on the social structures of the civilizations that came into contact with it. Its simplicity not only allowed its easy adaptation to multiple languages, but it also allowed the common people to learn how to write. This upset the long-standing status of literacy as an exclusive achievement of royal and religious elites—scribes who used their monopoly on information to control the common population.

The Euboean alphabet

The Euboean alphabet was a western variant of the early Greek alphabet, used between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. It was used in the island of Euboea (notably the cities of Eretria and Chalkis) and in related colonies in southern Italy, notably in Cumae and in Pithikoussai. It was through this variant that the Greek alphabet was transmitted to Italy, giving rise to the Old Italic alphabets, including Etruscan, and ultimately the Latin alphabet. Some of the distinctive features of Latin as compared to the standard Greek script are already present in the Euboean model. In Greece, this and other local variants were replaced by the standard Greek alphabet, which is based on eastern Ionic Greek variants from the 4th century BC.

Euboean alphabet tended to use certain variant forms of the standard letters, several of which also foreshadowed the forms adopted by the Italic scripts. Γ was written like a (rounded or pointed) Latin C. Δ was written with the left edge vertical and the other two sides oblique, like a pointed Latin D. Λ was often written more like a Latin L, with a rightward hook at the bottom. Π was often written with a rounded top, approaching the shape of Latin P (but without the curve touching the vertical stem in the middle). Ρ, in turn, often had a downward tail, resembling Latin R.

The Marsiliana abecedarium (ca. 700 BC) shows an archaic variant of the Etruscan alphabet practically identical to the Western Greek alphabet, except for the presence of a Ξ or Samek.

Apart from the omission of samek (Ξ) and the addition of ΥΧΦΨ, the alphabet is identical to the Phoenician alphabet.

The Etruscan alphabet

The Etruscan alphabet was the alphabet used by the Etruscans, an ancient civilization of central and northern Italy, to write their language from about 700 BC to sometime around 100 AD.

The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Euboean alphabet used in the Greek colonies in southern Italy, which belonged to the "western" ("red") type, the so-called Western Greek alphabet. Several Old Italic scripts, including the Latin alphabet, derived from it (or simultaneously with it).

The Etruscan alphabet originated as an adaptation of the Euboean alphabet used by the Euboean Greeks in their first colonies in Italy, the island of Pithekoussai, and the city of Cumae in Campania. In the alphabets of the West, X had the sound value [ks], and Ψ stood for [kʰ]; in Etruscan, X = [s], Ψ = [kʰ] or [kχ] (Rix 202–209).

The earliest known Etruscan abecedarium is inscribed on the frame of a wax tablet in ivory, measuring 8.8×5 cm, found at Marsiliana (near Grosseto, Tuscany). It dates from about 700 BC and lists 26 letters corresponding to contemporary forms of the Greek alphabet, including digamma, san, and qoppa, but not omega, which had still not been added at the time.

The shapes of the Archaic Etruscan and Neo-Etruscan letters had a few variants, used in different places and/or in different epochs. Notably, opposite letters were used for /s/ and /ʃ/, depending on the locality. Shown above are the glyphs from the Unicode Old Italic block, whose appearance will depend on the font used by the browser. These are oriented as they would be in lines written from left to right. Also shown are SVG images of variants shown as they would be written right to left, as in most of the actual inscriptions.

Amazing photos of Northamptonshire Roman settlement found on HS2 dig (Photo Gallery)

By Tom Hitchenor

300 coins and a well were unearthed at what would have been "bustling and busy" trading centre

See these amazing photos of a Roman settlement found during an HS2 dig in Northamptonshire.

Archaeologists discovered the "extraordinary" site near Chipping Warden while working on the huge rail project.

Over the past year, a team of around 80 archaeologists from MOLA Headland Infrastructure have been excavating an Iron Age village that developed into a wealthy Roman trading town.

READ MORE: For the latest Northants Live stories on South Northamptonshire, visit our dedicated local news channel

The presence of such a significant archaeological site in the area has been known since the 18th century, but the scale and quality of the discoveries have "surpassed expectations" according to experts.

Known as Blackgrounds after the soil found there, the settlement began in the Iron Age when it was a village formed of over 30 roundhouses - uncovered alongside an Iron Age road.

Evidence from the dig shows that the settlement expanded over time becoming more prosperous during the Roman period, with new stone buildings roads emerging.

Considering the close proximity of the Iron Age remains, the archaeological team believe it is likely local inhabitants continued to live at the site into the Roman period and adapted to a new way of life.

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This "Romanisation" included taking on customs, products and building techniques.

Running through the site is a 10m wide Roman road which is "exceptional in its size" and indicates the settlement would have been very busy with carts coming and going.

Over 300 Roman coins, either lost or discarded, have been recovered - indicating a significant volume of commerce was passing through the area.

Foundations have been uncovered of buildings used for domestic purposes, as well as more industrial practices.

There is also evidence of workshops, kilns and several beautifully preserved wells, uncovered by archaeologists.

In one area of the site, the earth has been preserved a fiery red colour and would have been used for activities such as bread making, foundries for metalwork or a pottery kiln.

James West, MOLA site manager, said: "This is certainly one of the most impressive sites MOLA Headland Infrastructure has discovered whilst working on the HS2 scheme.

"A particular highlight for me has been understanding the emerging story of Blackgrounds, which we now know spans multiple time periods.

"Uncovering such a well-preserved and large Roman road, as well as so many high quality finds has been extraordinary and tells us so much about the people who lived here.

"The site really does have the potential to transform our understanding of the Roman landscape in the region and beyond.”

See below for the extraordinary photos of the Roman settlement.

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Turkey: Bronze Roman Military Diploma was discovered in Perre ancient city

By Leman Altuntaş, Arkeonews

During excavations in the ancient city of Perre, located in the southeastern Turkish province of Adiyaman, archaeologists uncovered a bronze military diploma dating back 2000 years.

Perre, which was one of the five largest cities of the Commagene Kingdom, also preserved its importance in the Roman period. Excavations in the ancient city of Perre started in 2001. Continuing in intervals, the excavations unearthed a historical Roman fountain, large blocks of stones, water ducts, and various architectural structures this year.

Amid the ongoing studies, a military diploma was recently found inscribed on a bronze plate. It was reported that the bronze diploma was given in 123 A.D.

With the help of ancient history and languages expert professor Mustafa Hamdi Sayar, the text was translated and it was determined that the plate was a military diploma.

Photo: AA

“In the translation of the diploma, which is in the form of a bronze plate, it was identified that Calcilius Antiquus, who had served in the military for 20 years in Syria, was granted Roman citizenship and the right to marry,” Adıyaman Museum Director Mehmet Alkan said.

“We found a bronze plate when we were about to finish the excavations in the ancient city of Perre. Its translation revealed that the bronze plate was a military diploma. It was written in Latin, and we saw that the person named Calcilius Antiquus served in the Syrian state for 20 years, and therefore, it was a diploma in which he was given Roman citizenship and the right to marry at the same time. We saw that this diploma was given in 123 A.D. during the reign of Emperor Hadrian,” he added.

Alkan said that there is information that 100,000 diplomas were printed, adding, “It is said that 100,000 copies of these diplomas were printed in the world. However, we learn that there is information about most of them being melted in furnaces. It is known that there are 800 of these diplomas in the world and more than 650 of them have been studied. It is an exciting development that the last of these ones was found here. With the discovery of this diploma, our excavation ended this year.”

Perre was an important city for religious and geopolitical reasons. The beauty of the city’s water was even mentioned in ancient Roman sources, however, Perre lost its importance after the Byzantine Period and never regained its former glory.

Swiss Archeologists dig up Youngest Roman Amphitheatre in Kaiseraugst

The construction of a new boathouse for the Basel Rowing Club on the Rhine in Kaiseraugst was accompanied at the beginning of December 2021 by the excavation team of the Aargau Cantonal Archaeology. Since the construction project affected a Roman quarry, walls were not expected. The archaeologists were all the more surprised when an oval ring of walls came to light, as reported by the Aargau cantonal archeology on Wednesday morning.

An amphitheater from late antiquity

The function of the oval ring of walls was initially unclear and only in the course of the excavation did the thesis come true: it is a Roman amphitheater. The facility is around 50 meters long and 40 meters wide and is located in the valley of a quarry that was abandoned in Roman times.

This is immediately west of the Kaiseraugst fort, the Castrum Rauracense. A large gate was uncovered to the south of the complex, which was flanked on both sides by two side entrances. The threshold made of sandstone blocks from the western side entrance was still preserved. On the west side of the complex there was another entrance to the arena, again with a large sandstone threshold. The inside of the arena wall was plastered.

The youngest known amphitheater of the Roman Empire

The grandstands consisted of a wooden construction, from which the imprint of a wooden post could still be proven. All the evidence together, the oval, the entrances and the placement of the posts for a grandstand, speak for an amphitheater. Due to the building materials used, the finds and the fact that it was built in an abandoned quarry, it dates to late antiquity, probably to the 4th century AD.

This makes it the youngest known amphitheater in the Roman Empire. The monument thus underlines the importance of the Castrum Rauracense in the 4th century AD.

The fort was an important settlement with a military function on the Roman border, but also an administrative center. The Roman city of Augusta Raurica, the archaeological site of the Roman city of Augusta Raurica and the late antique Castrum Rauracense, form a unit. Today the site extends to both the Aargau and the Basel area.

The second amphitheater next to Vindonissa in Aargau - the eighth in Switzerland

The Kaiseraugst amphitheater is the second amphitheater in the canton of Aargau after the one in Vindonissa (Windisch). It is the third such monument in the Roman town of Augusta Raurica. Eight such buildings are now known throughout Switzerland.

In addition to Vindonissa and Augusta Raurica, there is an amphitheater in Avenches (Aventicum), Martigny (Forum Claudii Vallensium), Nyon (Colonia Iulia Equestris) and on the Enge peninsula in Bern (Brenodurum). In Roman times, games such as gladiator fights and animal hunts were presented in the arenas, which were very popular at the time.

Thanks to the close and good cooperation with the client, the construction project could be adapted in such a way that the Kaiseraugst amphitheater was preserved in the ground. The archaeological substance is protected by a dam. The new building will be erected above it. The monument thus remains in its original place and is optimally protected so that it will be preserved for the future. 

Hungry Badger Unearths Largest Ever Roman Coin Hoard in Spain

By Harry Baker 

The coins came from multiple locations across the Roman Empire.

A hungry badger searching for food seems to have uncovered what turned out to be hundreds of roman coins in a Spanish cave, according to a new study.

Archaeologists first discovered several coins laying on the ground at the entrance to a small cave in the woodlands outside Grado in northern Spain in April 2021. The researchers suspect that the coins were unearthed by a European badger (Meles meles) from a nearby den after a heavy storm dumped several feet of snow on the ground, making it harder for animals to find food. The hungry badger probably ventured into the cave looking for something to eat but came across the coins instead. 

After fully excavating the cave, researchers collected 209 coins dating to between the third and fifth centuries A.D., according to Spanish news site El Pais. Further analysis revealed the coins, which were mostly made from copper and bronze, had been minted at various locations across the Roman Empire including Constantinople (now Istanbul), Thessaloniki in Greece and London. The team published their findings Dec. 21, 2021, in the journal Notebooks of Prehistory and Archeology of the Autonomous University of Madrid.

"To date, this is the largest treasure trove of Roman coins found in a cave in northern Spain," the researchers wrote in their paper. They described the discovery as an "exceptional find."

In the late 1930s, a collection of 14 gold Roman coins, known as the Chapipi treasure, was also found in the same woodlands. The researchers believe that local people may have buried their coins to keep them safe during a period of intense political instability in the region. The most recent coin in the newly discovered Grado collection dates to A.D. 430, which was after the Suebi — a group of Germanic people originally from modern-day Germany and the Czech Republic — invaded and pushed the Romans out of Spain in A.D. 409, according to El Pais.

"The accumulation of significant finds could — with caution — be seen as a response to the intense conflict experienced in the border territory," lead researcher Alfonso Fanjul Peraza, an archaeologist at the Autonomous University of Madrid, told El Pais.

The researchers suspect that the newly discovered coins are part of a larger hoard and will return to the cave for further excavations to look for more coins and evidence that the cave may also have been inhabited by displaced Roman people. "We want to know if it was a one-off hiding place, or if there was a group of humans living there," Peraza told El Pais.

4,500-year-old Rope Remains found in Turkey’s Seyitömer Mound

In the ongoing excavations in Seyitömer mound in western Kütahya province, experts have discovered a 4,500-year-old rope.

The excavations have been carried out in the mound by Kütahya Museum Directorate under the supervision of museum expert Serdar Ünan for three years. Speaking to Anadolu Agency (AA), Nazan Ünan, an academician of Kütahya Dumlupınar University (DPÜ), said they have been sustaining the work in the mound with a technical staff of 50, comprised of archaeologists, restorers, architects, architectural restorers and ceramic experts, plus a team of 250 laborers.

A view of the rope remains in Seyitömer Mound, Kütahya, western Turkey, Dec. 23, 2021. (AA Photo)

Noting that they have unveiled settlements dating back to the second and third period of the Early Bronze Age and Roman period in the mound to date, Ünan said that they also discovered around 6,000 archaeological finds shedding light on the mound's past.

Stating that the most surprising finding in the mound in 2021 was the remains of a 4,500-year-old rope, she continued: “We found these remains in an area where a fire broke out in the past. We consider the rope remains important because they are almost the same thickness and weave as the ropes we use today.”

Ünan also explained that the remains of the rope along with many other organic items have survived to date because they were originally burned.

A general view from Seyitömer Mound, Kütahya, western Turkey, Dec. 23, 2021. (AA)

Seyitömer Mound

Seyitömer Mound, which dates to the third century B.C., is located in the work area of the Çelikler Seyitömer Electricity Generation Corporation, 26 kilometers (16 miles) from the city's center.

The excavation of the mound, which had an original height of 26 meters (85 feet), width of 140 meters and length of 150 meters, was initiated by the Eskişehir Museum Directorate in 1989 to bring 12 million tons of lignite under it into the economy.

The mound was excavated by the Afyonkarahisar Museum Directorate between the years 1990 and 1995. The DPÜ Archeology Department took over the excavations in 2006. The excavation team consisting of academic staff, students and workers continued working in the mound until 2014. More than 17,000 artifacts excavated from the mound have been handed over to the Museum Directorate for display.

The excavations have resumed, run by the Kütahya Museum Directorate, since 2019.

How AI and Robotics are Reconstructing a 2,000-year-old Fresco in Pompeii

Computer scientists and archeologists are working together to solve this ancient puzzle.

[Photo: courtesy IIT]

BY ELISSAVETA M. BRANDON

When we sit down to solve a jigsaw puzzle, there’s always one thing we take for granted: the picture on the box. Without that point of reference, we’d be pulling our hair out, trying and failing to rebuild a jumbled pile of miscellaneous pieces.

That’s exactly what was happening in the ancient Roman city of Pompeii, where over 10,000 fragmented pieces from 2,000-year-old frescoes have been lying around for decades, waiting for someone to solve the puzzle. Now, a team of scientists led by the Venice-based Italian Institute of Technology may have found a solution: train a robot to do it.

[Photo: courtesy IIT]

Dubbed “Reconstructing the Past: Artificial Intelligence and Robotics meet Cultural Heritage” (RePAIR), the project is funded by a €3.5-million grant (just under $4 million) from a European Commission that supports high-risk projects working toward “radically new future technologies.” The project will be developed in two phases: first, an algorithm will reconstruct the puzzle digitally, then a pair of robotic hands will put the puzzle (i.e. the frescoes) back together. This is the first time that AI will be used as an archeological tool at such a large scale, and the first time that robotic hands will be put in charge of so many pieces. If the project works, the scientists are hoping to deploy the technology in other cultural heritage sites around the world, like historic churches in Italy, or even the Ancient city of Palmyra in war-torn Syria.

A key part of the project will be teaching the algorithm how to study like an archeologist and think like a puzzle master. The puzzle-solving AI was developed in collaboration with a team at Ben Gurion University of the Negev, in Israel, and it works like an infinitely more intricate version of the popular memory game “find the pair.” The computer software compares all the fragments in pairs and rates their degree of similarity based on the shape of the pieces, how they fit together, plus how the illustrations on the fragments match up. Normally, this process can be done manually (using a computer), but the team is now teaching the algorithm how to compare pieces on its own.

[Photo: courtesy IIT]

Thanks to a team of archeologists from the University of Lausanne, who have attempted to solve the puzzle in the past, they already have about a dozen reconstructed clusters (about 10 pieces each) that they are feeding the algorithm. If the computer can put those pieces back together, they will know the system can be deployed at a larger scale.

[Photo: courtesy IIT]

The robot will be deployed in Pompeii sometime next summer, but for now, the scientists are working on several projects in parallel. While one team is building the algorithm, another is 3D scanning a large sample of fragments so they can be put into the database (once the robot is fully operational, it will scan them on its own). And another team is working on the physical infrastructure and robotic hands that will eventually pick up the pieces and rebuild the frescoes. “One day, you will take all the pieces, put them into a room, lock the door, come back after a few days, and you will find the fresco completely reassembled,” says Marcello Pelillo, a professor of computer science and artificial intelligence at the University of Venice. (Though he admits things probably won’t go quite so smoothly.)

The fragments come from two separate rooms (including the ceilings) in a building called the House of Painters at Work, (named because artists were in the middle of painting when Mount Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79.) They run the gamut from tiny fragments to palm-sized pieces, most of them damaged, and many of them missing. The scientists are working with archeologists and art historians, who will narrow down the pieces to an initial 1,000 they think belong in the same cluster, or at least on the same wall.

Within a year or two, Pelillo says they should have a preliminary image of the frescoes, but a complete and final image will take longer. When the robotic platform is finished, the plan is for the robot to do it all at once: “The robot will do the scanning itself, then after doing the scanning, it will solve the puzzle, then after solving the puzzle it will reassemble it,” says Pelillo. (The set-up will look like a bridge, with two robotic arms suspended from a metal frame.)

At the end of the project, the frescoes will be displayed in the Archeological Park of Pompeii for visitors to experience, but they will inform further research, too. Ariana Traviglia, the director of the IIT Center for Cultural Heritage and Technology, says we can learn a lot from the reconstructed frescoes and the patterns on them. “Frescoes were not like wallpaper, they were not all the same,” she says. “In each of them, the artist was putting something new following the taste of the owner.” Already, Traviglia can tell that the family who lived there was wealthy: “the stucco all around the ceiling is very high quality.”

If the project is successful, the technology can save conservators precious time that can be spent on restoration. And while this project is currently focused on relatively flat fragments, Traviglia wants to take things up a notch and try more complex shapes next, like ancient statues, wrecks, and amphoras.

Eventually, the team could put all of this into practice in other cultural heritage sites, like the host of ancient churches that crumbled during the earthquakes in Central Italy four years ago. “All over the world, we have so many pieces of broken frescoes and broken objects from our past, and they are so tiny that we don’t have the time and personnel to put them together,” she says. “It will really change the things we can do.”

Spain: Researchers Believe they Found Fabled Temple of Hercules Gaditanus

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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A significant pilgrimage place in antiquity was the fabled temple of Hercules Gaditanus, also known as Melqart in Phoenician times. The temple, which dates at least to the ninth century BC, is said to have seen the likes of historical personalities like Julius Caesar and the Carthaginian conqueror Hannibal walk by.

Finding the temple, which has been sought after for ages by historians and archaeologists, has become something of a holy grail for them despite the fact that its location is still unknown thousands of years later.

Aerial view of the temple’s possible location.

Now there is a possible answer to this great mystery. Ricardo Belizón, a Ph.D. student at Seville University in southern Spain, has come up with a new hypothesis, which is backed by scientists from his university and the Andalusian Institute of Historical Heritage (IAPH). Thanks to free software and digital terrain modeling, Belizón has identified traces of a monumental building in the Cao de Sancti Petri, a shallow channel in the Bay of Cádiz between the towns of Chiclana de Frontera and San Fernando, in the southern region of Andalusia.

Hypothetical view that the archaeologist García y Bellido made of the Hercules temple, in 1968, based on the one in Jerusalem.

The temple of Hercules Gaditanus is mentioned in classical Greek and Latin literature as the place where Julius Caesar wept bitterly before a representation of Alexander the Great and where the Carthaginian conqueror Hannibal went to offer thanks for the success of his military campaign a century and a half earlier. All these references mention “a changing environment, in contact with the sea, subject to the changing tides, in a temple where there must have been port structures and a seafaring environment,” says Milagros Alzaga, head of the Center for Underwater Archaeology (CAS), who also participated in the research.

A 3D model showing the Boqueron point in San Fernando (Cádiz) and the rectangular structure of the possible temple of Hercules Gaditanus now submerged under the Caño of Sancti Petri

The proposal made presently by Seville University and the IAPH is within a radius considered to be the most evident, following decades of academic dispute and several temple location recommendations. The location is a sizable swampy canal that is dominated by an islet and the Sancti Petri fortress that towers above it. The region has produced significant archaeological artifacts for more than two centuries, some of which are now on display in the Museum of Cadiz. They include enormous marble and bronze sculptures of Roman emperors and different statuettes from the Phoenician era. All of these findings contributed to defining the precise position of the Hercules Gaditanus temple as being located between the islet's slopes and the Boquerón point, an area of fine sand and rocky intertidal zone.

Who is Hercules in Greek and Roman mythology?

Hercules is one of the most renowned figures in ancient mythology, known for his superhuman strength and his twelve labors. However, there's an important distinction to make when discussing this legendary hero: the difference between his Greek and Roman portrayals.

In Greek mythology, the hero is known as Heracles (meaning "Glory of Hera"). Born to Zeus, the king of the gods, and Alcmene, a mortal woman, Heracles' life was marked by both glory and suffering, much of it orchestrated by Hera, Zeus's jealous wife. Outraged by Zeus's infidelity and the birth of Heracles, Hera sought to make the hero's life as difficult as possible.

One of the most famous episodes from Heracles' life is the Twelve Labors, a series of near-impossible tasks he was forced to perform as penance for killing his own wife and children during a fit of madness, another tragedy instigated by Hera. These labors ranged from slaying the Nemean Lion and capturing the Golden Hind to cleaning the Augean stables in a single day and capturing the three-headed dog, Cerberus, from the Underworld.

Over time, Heracles became a symbol of strength, courage, and endurance. His adventures intertwine with other famous Greek myths, and his legacy was solidified when he was granted immortality and became a god, joining the Olympians after his mortal death.

The Romans were heavily influenced by Greek culture and mythology, often adopting and adapting Greek deities and stories. In Roman lore, Heracles was transformed into Hercules, and while the core elements of his story remained largely unchanged, certain aspects of his character and tales were adapted to fit the Roman worldview.

Hercules was worshipped as both a god and a hero in Rome. He was especially revered as a protector of humanity, a role that saw him incorporated into various aspects of Roman daily life. For instance, the Hercules Cult was notably popular in Rome, with Hercules being honored for his strength, bravery, and protective qualities.

One significant Roman addition to Hercules's story was his relationship with the goddess Roma, a personification of the city of Rome. By aligning Hercules with Roma, the Romans reinforced their city's greatness and divine protection.

Macedonia, Greece: Statue of the Imperial Period Unveiled in a Salvage Excavation in the City of Veroia

In the center of ancient, but also of modern Veria, in Macedonia, Greece, very close to the visitable archeological site of Agios Patapios, in a rescue excavation of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Imathia, in one of the few non-reconstructed plots of the city, an unexpected find came to light on Friday 17 December: a marble statue almost one meter (about 3/5 of the natural) that dates back to imperial period, when Veria, as the seat of the Macedonian Commonwealth and the official city of the imperial cult, was the first city of Macedonia, the center of political and cultural developments in the region and at the same time an axis of cohesion and a point of reference of the ancient Macedonian traditions.

With a chlamydia thrown around his left shoulder and wrapped around his arm, the naked young man with the athletic body emerges from the volume of the marble, recalling classic patterns, images of statues related to Apollo or Hermes. It is the work of a very skilled craftsman who, however, obviously never finished. For unknown reason, the sculptor, although he had advanced a lot in the elaboration of the main aspects, reaching an almost final stage, decided to abandon the effort unfinished.

This fact makes the small statue especially valuable for the study, not only of the style, but mainly of the production techniques of these works, exact copies or even more free repetitions of famous originals and helps us to approach the Veroia school of sculpture from a completely different point of view, which appears with particularly recognizable features already in the Hellenistic years and reaches its apogee at the time of the great prosperity of the city, when the Antoninians and the 'Philalexander' Severus reigned (2nd-beginning of the 3rd century AD).

The excavation on the plot continues.

The Roman imperial period is the expansion of political and cultural influence of the Roman Empire. The period begins with the reign of Augustus (r. 43 BC – AD 14), and it is taken to end variously between the late 3rd and the late 4th century, with the beginning of Late Antiquity. Despite the end of the "Roman imperial period", the Roman Empire continued to exist under the rule of the Roman emperors into Late Antiquity and beyond, except in the western empire, over which the Romans' political and military control was lost in the course of the 5th-century fall of the western Roman empire.