The Insane Logistics of a Roman Army on the March - 24 Hour Simulation 3D DOCUMENTARY

Unraveling the Intricate Logistics of the Roman Army

The Roman Empire is renowned for its military prowess and conquests, but behind the grandeur of their legions lies a complex web of logistical challenges. In a captivating 3D documentary titled "The Insane Logistics of a Roman Army on the March," we gain insight into the meticulous planning and coordination required for a 24-hour march of 50,000 Roman soldiers.

This immersive experience not only showcases the impressive mobility and endurance of the Roman army but also highlights the indispensable role of logistics in their success.

The documentary opens by emphasizing the formidable logistical challenges faced by Roman armies. The 24-hour march simulation vividly illustrates the need for strategic coordination when managing a colossal force like the Roman legions.

Acknowledging the inherent limitations in reconstructing the Roman Army, the video credits various authors and sources. It reveals a critical piece of information: the maximum distance an army can cover in a day is approximately 65 km at a regular pace and 75 km at a quick pace. These figures are based on meticulous calculations and a daylight chart for a Mediterranean latitude during campaign seasons.

Roman armies on the move had to meticulously plan logistics and employ innovative strategies. They would divide into smaller groups to handle various tasks efficiently. This approach aimed to avoid traffic jams and optimize their time on the march.

The documentary then unfolds the march of the Roman Army, spanning an astonishing 25 km. The army commences its journey in the pre-dawn hours, with reconnaissance forces and a vanguard prepared to surmount any obstacles that lie ahead.

The Roman army is a well-oiled machine with a highly organized formation. While support staff and gear remain behind, infantry and cavalry extend in a long column. The baggage train, though crucial, could potentially cause delays.

The Roman Army on the march is a massive operation that extends 25 km. It comprises various specialized groups, including the Rear Guard and Flank Guard, tasked with protecting the army and its precious baggage train. Although the planned distance is 20 km, it would take a marathon runner a staggering 1 hour and 12 minutes to cover the entire length.

The documentary highlights the efficiency of the Roman army in setting up camp, foraging for supplies, completing chores, and marching toward their objective. This underlines the monumental importance of logistics and road-building in ancient Rome.

As we delve into the intricacies of the Roman Army's logistics through this 3D documentary, we gain a profound appreciation for the meticulous planning and coordination that underpinned their military successes. From the sprawling march formations to the careful orchestration of support staff, every aspect of logistics played a crucial role in the Roman Empire's dominance. This immersive experience provides a window into the awe-inspiring capabilities of one of history's most formidable military forces, reminding us of the critical role logistics plays in any great endeavor.

The Vibrant Panel from the Tomb of the Dancers: A Testament to Ancient Artistry and Cultural Exchange

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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At the heart of Ruvo di Puglia, an Italian town in the metropolitan city of Bari in Puglia, a discovery from circa 400–350 BC continues to dazzle the world with its vibrancy and evocative representation of ancient life and merriment. The famed panel from the Tomb of the Dancers provides not just an unparalleled glimpse into antiquity but also serves as a bridge connecting the artistic traditions of the ancient Greeks and Etruscans.

Delving Deeper into the Tomb of the Dancers

The Tomb of the Dancers is a paramount example of the cultural and artistic effervescence of the 4th century BC. The tomb is an underground chamber tomb, a type commonly associated with the Peucetians, an ancient Italic people. Its unique frescoes have illuminated our understanding of Italic funerary practices and beliefs, suggesting a synthesis of indigenous traditions and Hellenic influences.

The dancers, adorned in typical ancient attire, move harmoniously across the chamber walls, inviting speculation about their societal roles and the nature of the depicted ceremony. Intriguingly, the frescoes also showcase a series of birds, hinting at possible ornithological symbolism or beliefs in the soul's transcendence. The Tomb of the Dancers isn’t just a mausoleum; it's a narrative canvas, telling tales of an era where death, life, art, and spirituality wove together into a tapestry of shared human experience.

Colors of Antiquity

The first thing that captures an observer's attention when examining the panel is the sheer brilliance and preservation of its colors. Deep reds, yellows, and blues interspersed with earthy browns and gentle hues of white tell the story of an ancient palette that was both rich and varied. The hues have been extracted from nature—mineral pigments, plants, and other organic sources—reflecting the ancients’ profound understanding of natural resources.

Movement and Life

The name "Tomb of the Dancers" is no accident. The panel portrays a dynamic scene of dancers reveling in the throes of a celebration or perhaps a ritual. The way the figures are rendered, with limbs stretched out and garments flowing, gives a tangible sense of movement. You can almost hear the music to which these ancient figures danced.

Individuality and Expression

Unlike some ancient art, where figures can appear standardized or even stolid, the Tomb of the Dancers captures the essence of individuality. Each dancer possesses a unique posture, facial expression, and even hairstyle. This not only serves as a testament to the artist's acute observational skills but also offers insights into the diversity and individual expression cherished in ancient societies.

Greek Influences and the Evolution of Roman Artistry

The artistic style and motifs found in the Tomb of the Dancers have their roots in the Greek tradition. The ancient Greeks were pioneers in many art forms, from sculpture to painting, and they celebrated human form, movement, and emotion. This Greek aesthetic had a profound influence on the regions they interacted with, including the Italian peninsula.

The Hellenistic period, emerging after the conquests of Alexander the Great and lasting from the 4th to the 1st century BC, was characterized by a remarkable spread and fusion of Greek culture across the known world. Hellenistic paintings, in particular, broke from the idealism of the Classical era, opting for more emotional intensity, intricate details, and realism. These artworks depicted daily life, landscapes, and even still lives, revealing a broader spectrum of human experience. As the Roman Republic expanded and came into close contact with Hellenistic kingdoms, they were deeply influenced by this artistic evolution.

Banquet scene from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC.

Three main qualities unique to Hellenistic painting style were three-dimensional perspective, the use of light and shade to render form, and trompe-l'œil realism.

Roman frescoes, often found in the luxurious villas of Pompeii and Herculaneum, bore the marks of this Hellenistic inspiration. They adopted the rich color palettes, depth, and perspective techniques and were notably influenced by the genre scenes, landscapes, and portraiture of Hellenistic art. In essence, through their vast conquests and subsequent cultural assimilations, the Romans became the torchbearers of Hellenistic art, refining it and making it an integral part of their architectural and artistic narrative.

However, as the Etruscan and later Roman civilizations began to rise and assimilate various cultures and their artistic traditions, a synthesis occurred. While the Romans drew heavily from the Greeks, they added their own touch, emphasizing particular themes, subjects, and techniques. The frescoes in Roman villas and public buildings are classic examples of this blended tradition.

The fresco technique, where paint is applied on wet plaster, was employed by both Greeks and Romans, making it a shared tradition that spanned centuries and evolved stylistic nuances. The Tomb of the Dancers, while predating the zenith of Roman art, can be seen as part of this continuum, where the artistic baton passed from the Greeks to the Romans.

The vibrant panel from the Tomb of the Dancers stands as a monument to the artistry of ancient civilizations and their interconnected histories. It serves as a brilliant reminder that art is not just a reflection of the time in which it was created but also a window into the cultural exchanges, innovations, and shared human experiences of epochs past. The connections between Greek and Italic paintings and fresco history, exemplified in masterpieces like this, underline the intertwined nature of their civilizations and their lasting impact on the art world.

The Buried City: Pompeii and the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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The City that Time Forgot: Pompeii and the Eruption of AD 79

Before the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, the ancient Roman city of Pompeii was one of the most prosperous and thriving cities of its time. The eruption preserved the city for centuries, and excavations in the 18th century revealed its well-preserved buildings, frescoes, and artifacts, giving a rare glimpse into ancient Roman life.

The Roman city of Pompeii was in Campania, Italy, close to present-day Naples. The city's population was somewhere in the vicinity of 20,000. The city's luxurious villas and mansions complemented the city's public structures, which included a theater, an amphitheater, and a forum.

When Mount Vesuvius erupted in AD 79, it buried the city in a thick layer of ash and pumice, which miraculously preserved the city and its inhabitants. The ash and pumice crusted over to form a barrier that kept the city's structures and artifacts safe from further damage.

Excavations began in the 18th century, revealing many of the city's buildings, frescoes, and artifacts thanks to their excellent preservation. The city's artistic and cultural treasures were unearthed during the excavations. The city's mosaics and frescoes, which have been preserved remarkably well, offered a glimpse into the lives of its residents. The city's public buildings, including the theater, amphitheater, and forum, were uncovered during the excavations as well.

The homes and villas of Pompeii also revealed fascinating information about the inhabitants' daily lives. Many of the homes sported mosaics and frescoes that betrayed the owners' social standing and financial well-being. Many artifacts, including furniture, tools, and ceramics, were discovered in the homes, giving researchers a glimpse into the daily lives of the Pompeian residents.

Pompeii, one of the world's most significant archaeological sites, has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Millions of tourists flock there every year because of its high profile. To this day, the art, architecture, and daily life of ancient Rome that were uncovered in the excavations of Pompeii continue to fascinate and inspire people from all walks of life.

In sum, Pompeii offers an extraordinary window into the lives of the ancient Romans. Excavations dating back to the 18th century have revealed a city that was rich in art, architecture, and culture before it was buried by the ash and debris of Mount Vesuvius's eruption in AD 79 and lost to history for centuries. Pompeii is a major tourist destination and a must-see destination for anyone interested in ancient Roman history, and the excavations have provided valuable insights into the daily lives of the people of Pompeii.

The Roman Mosaic that was Found in Ancient Slave Monster’s Villa

Researchers have discovered an antique Roman mosaic that formerly adorned the residence of the dreadful tyrant Publius Vedius Pollio at a luxurious coastal mansion in Posillipo, close to Naples. Legend has it that Pollio, who is remembered for his heinous treatment of slaves, even fed his workers parasitic worms.

Pauslypon, which translates to "respite from concern," is a posh residential area in the Naples hills. Ancient Greek and Roman texts claim that wealthy Roman families during the Roman era were drawn to the coastline of Campania, much as today's residents of Los Angeles are drawn to beachside houses along the coast of Malibu.

The 770-meter (2526-foot)-long "Grotta Seiano" tunnel, which was initially dug during the Roman era, is the only way to get to Posillipo. A collection of historic Roman buildings facing the sea make up the Pausilypon Archaeological-Environmental Park, which is based on Vedius Pollio's main mansion, one of history's most dreadful dictators. Researchers discovered a unique mosaic floor from the villa's initial building at this old villa.

This location, also referred to as the Imperial Villa, is located on a rocky promontory at the far end of the Bay of Naples. An Odeon offered smaller performances and also a 2000-seat mega-theatre for major nights. Moreover, a bath complex and a Nymphaeum shrine dedicated to water nymphs made sure that the city's privileged citizens and visitors enjoyed the pinnacle of luxury.

In a recent news release, archaeologists from the University of Naples L'Orientale stated that the mosaic was found in a living room with a view of the sea in Naples. "Tiny white pieces of tesserae with a double black framing" were used to create the floor covering. The term "tesserae" refers to any tiny piece of stone, glass, or ceramic in ancient Roman mosaic art.

The mosaic's excavation was overseen by Professor Marco Giglio of the L'Orientale University of Naples, who noted that while stratigraphic dating was impossible, the mosaic's design suggested that it may have originated during "the late Republican age or Augustan at the latest." The relic may not be outstanding, but its setting is arguably of the utmost significance.

The mosaic is thought to have been buried beneath remodeling projects that Emperor Augustus ordered following Vedius's passing. We must first study a little about the dreadful deeds of Publius Vedius Pollio in order to comprehend why a Roman emperor spent money at a soldier's opulent resort.

According to an article in Heritage Daily, Pollio became well-known in the first century BC not only for his opulent tastes but also for his "cruelty to slaves." The fact that this affluent Roman cavalier was born into a family of freed slaves makes Pollio's horrendous treatment of his fellow humans, in this case slaves, all the more repulsive.

Hearing about the details of his particularly heinous treatment of slaves makes Pollio seem to have been a traitor of the highest and most vile sort. Yet Pollio wasn't only interested in "regular" torture; according to history, he also had a fetish for intense agony and horror.

The incident that occurred when Augustus himself visited the opulent mansion in the Bay of Naples is arguably the most illustrative of Pollio's diabolical methods. A slave carrying a cup stumbled while serving dinner and broke a crystal glass. Pollio ordered the man to be thrown into a well with parasitic lamprey worms as punishment for his small infraction. But this time, the slave begged Augustus for pity.

The emperor gave the order to destroy all of Publius Vedius Pollio's most valuable glasses because he was so dissatisfied with how Pollio had assessed and treated the slave. Furthermore, he gave the order to fill the eel pool.

Vedius Pollio was so ashamed of himself that he left Augustus his entire fortune in 15 BC when he passed away. All Roman emperors up until Hadrian in 138 AD had control over it as an imperial possession. So, the mosaic provides yet another window into the extravagant wealth of a very repulsive man who fed parasitic human beings.

Roman Castra - How Legionaries Built and Lived in their Fortresses

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THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Fortress Construction and Life in the Imperial Period

The Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and martial prowess, were not only formidable warriors but also adept builders. During the Imperial Period (27 BC – 476 AD), the expanding boundaries of the Roman Empire necessitated the establishment of fortified bases across diverse terrains. These fortresses served as vital hubs for military, administrative, and logistical operations. Understanding how legionaries built and lived in these fortresses offers a glimpse into the Roman military's daily life and the Empire's broader strategic objectives.

Construction of the Fortress

1. Site Selection: Ideally, the Romans selected sites that offered natural defenses, like hills or river bends, while also ensuring proximity to vital transportation routes.

2. Standardized Layout: Roman military forts, known as "castra", typically followed a standardized rectangular plan. The size could vary based on the intended number of troops, but the general design remained consistent.

3. Fortifications: Walls, usually constructed initially from turf or wood and later replaced with stone, encircled the fortress. These walls were further reinforced by towers and a V-shaped ditch known as a fossa.

4. Interior Structures: Inside the fortress, roads were laid in a grid pattern, with the main road, the via praetoria, leading to the main entrance. Essential buildings included the principia (headquarters), horrea (granaries), valetudinarium (hospital), and barracks for the legionaries. There were also workshops, bathhouses, and temples.

5. Speed and Efficiency: Owing to their training and experience, legionaries could construct a basic fort in a matter of days, making it possible to establish a secure base even during active campaigns.

Life Within the Fortress Walls

1. Daily Routine: The life of a Roman soldier was highly regimented. Days began with the sounding of a bugle, followed by morning drills, weapon training, and other duties. Soldiers also engaged in construction projects, road building, and maintenance tasks.

2. Diet: Legionaries consumed a diet primarily consisting of wheat or barley, which they often made into porridge or bread. They also ate lentils, beans, vegetables, and occasionally meat. The horrea, or granaries, played a crucial role, ensuring that legions had a steady supply of grains.

3. Recreation: While their lives were rigorous, soldiers did have moments of leisure. They visited bathhouses, engaged in gambling or board games, and sometimes attended performances in makeshift theaters within the fort.

4. Religious Life: The Romans were deeply religious, and this extended to their military life. Temples within the fortress were dedicated to various deities, including the god of war, Mars, and the Imperial cult. Rituals and sacrifices were an integral part of the legionaries' lives.

5. Cohesion and Morale: The fortresses were not just military bases; they were tight-knit communities. The sense of brotherhood among the soldiers, combined with a rigorous daily routine and shared responsibilities, fostered unit cohesion and high morale.

Conclusion

The Roman legions' fortresses were marvels of strategic design, engineering prowess, and organizational skill. They were not just impenetrable strongholds but also thriving microcosms of Roman society. By delving into the intricacies of their construction and daily life, one gains a deeper appreciation for the legionaries' adaptability and the Roman Empire's expansive infrastructure.

The Hidden Veins of Roman empire: The Underground Aqueducts

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BY THE ARCHAEOLOGIST EDITOR GROUP

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Approximately 80% of the total length of Rome's aqueducts ran underground. Long after the prospect of invasion made underground structures necessary, they were still preferred. This was due to several advantages they had over surface structures.

The magnificent Colosseum, majestic arches, and vast roadways frequently spring to mind when thinking about the technical achievements of the Roman Empire. Yet, an elaborate network of above- and below-ground aqueducts connected these monumental emblems and ensured the development and vitality of towns from Rome to the far-off provinces. These aqueducts were not merely works of art; they were also the lifeblood that kept the massive Roman Empire alive.

Origins of the Underground Aqueducts

The Romans were unparalleled urban planners and architects, recognizing early on the importance of a reliable and clean water supply for a sprawling city. While the first aqueducts, like the Aqua Appia built in 312 BC, were primarily underground, it's the monumental above-ground arches that usually capture our imagination. But as the city grew and the demand for water increased, a vast underground network was developed to meet the needs of Rome's populace.

Engineering Prowess and Precision

Building an aqueduct wasn't a simple task. It demanded impeccable planning, an understanding of the terrain, and precision in execution. The Romans employed the force of gravity, ensuring that aqueducts, whether running on majestic arches above valleys or channeled deep underground, maintained a gentle gradient to ensure the water's continuous flow.

To protect the water's purity and the structures themselves, aqueducts were often lined with a special water-resistant mortar known as "opus signinum." This foresight ensured the water's purity and the structures longevity, which few other ancient constructions could match.

 Samuel Bailey / Wikipedia

The Significance and Purpose

The rationale behind the underground design wasn't purely functional; it was also strategic. By placing aqueducts underground, they were less vulnerable to enemy attacks and natural disasters. Moreover, underground channels minimized water loss from evaporation, ensuring a more reliable supply, especially during the scorching Roman summers.

This hidden network wasn't just about water supply. It was about the equitable distribution of water throughout the city. From the grand public baths and fountains to individual households of both the elite and the commoner, the underground aqueducts democratized access to one of the most vital resources.

Beyond Rome: Spanning an Empire

While the city of Rome boasted impressive aqueducts like the Aqua Claudia and Aqua Marcia, the aqueduct system was not confined to the capital. Major cities throughout the empire, from Segovia in Spain to Ephesus in modern-day Turkey, benefited from this Roman ingenuity. In these regions, aqueducts not only supplied water but also symbolized the empire's might and the benefits of Roman governance.

Social and Cultural Impacts

More than functional utilities, the aqueducts represented Roman societal values and priorities. They provided water for public baths, a hub of Roman social and cultural life, and large latrines that enhanced sanitation. The consistent flow of water facilitated urban living, ensuring cities remained vibrant centers of commerce, governance, and entertainment.

Furthermore, the public fountains, fed by these aqueducts, became symbols of generosity for benefactors and emperors. By ensuring equitable access to clean water, the Roman state reinforced its commitment to the welfare of its citizens.

Legacy and Continuation

Much of the Roman aqueduct system fell into disrepair with the empire's decline. However, their remnants stand as a testament to Roman engineering and the empire's expansive reach. Some sections, like the Aqua Virgo in Rome, still function today, serving both as historical landmarks and functional water sources.

Rediscovery and Recognition

While the remnants of above-ground aqueducts are visible reminders of Roman ingenuity, the subterranean aqueducts remained largely hidden and forgotten until modern times. Recent urban projects and archaeological excavations have brought parts of this intricate system to light, reminding us of the feats of Roman engineering.

Some sections of the underground aqueducts, like those of Aqua Virgo, remain functional today, feeding iconic fountains like the Trevi Fountain. This continuity of use over millennia is a testament to their robust and sophisticated design.

Roman aqueducts, which span continents and centuries, are enduring representations of the empire's size and forward-thinking approach to urban design. We are reminded of a civilization that, at its pinnacle, combined form and function to create a world in which cities could not only exist but also thrive as we stroll beneath the shadow of aqueduct arches or gaze in awe at the fountains they fed.

A Portable Sundial Adorns the Archaeological Museum of Philippi in Greece

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By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

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The Ingenious Portable Sundial: A Testament to Hellenistic Innovation

In the heart of Macedonia, where history and archaeology intertwine, lies a hidden gem within the Archaeological Museum of Philippi: a portable sundial that takes us on a journey through time. Dating back to the period between 250 and 350 AD, this remarkable artifact offers a glimpse into the ancient world's fascination with measuring time, latitude, and the celestial heavens. Let us embark on a historical voyage to discover the secrets of this ingenious invention and its significance within the context of Hellenistic traditions.

The Portable Sundial's Unique Design

This portable sundial is unlike any other timekeeping device of its era. Comprising three interconnected flattened rings, it bears a striking resemblance to a spherical astrolabe. The beauty of this design lies in its versatility. Each of the three rings can be independently rotated a full 360 degrees, allowing for precise time measurements and astronomical observations.

Archaeological site of Philippi

On the outer curved side of the central ring, the names and latitudes of various cities are meticulously engraved in two half-rings. From Rome (ΡωΜΗC) to Alexandria (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΕΙΑC) and from Athens (ΑΘΗΝΑΙ) to Rhodes (ΡΟΔΟΥ), these inscriptions serve as geographical markers, facilitating latitude calculations.

Further enhancing its functionality, the sundial features month names engraved on both sides of the ring's thickness. These month inscriptions correspond to each city, with one side displaying January to June and the other July to December. This ingenious design allowed users to account for variations in daylight hours throughout the year, enabling more accurate timekeeping.

The innermost ring, found on the outer curved surface, contains a central optometric hole. This feature played a crucial role in determining the azimuth and altitude of celestial bodies, particularly the sun and stars. The inner domed side of this ring is divided into 12 sections by intricate engravings, enabling users to measure time with remarkable precision.

The Multifaceted Utility

This portable sundial is truly a marvel of ancient engineering. Its multifaceted utility is a testament to the ingenuity of the Hellenistic tradition. Beyond measuring time, this remarkable artifact allowed users to determine approximate latitude, chart the path of the sun or other celestial objects, and make calculations crucial for navigation and astronomy.

The Influence of Hellenistic Tradition

The roots of this portable sundial can be traced back to the Hellenistic tradition, a period marked by remarkable scientific and cultural achievements. However, it's important to note that the Byzantines, who succeeded the Hellenistic era, continued to cultivate these innovations under the influence of both Christianity and the Roman world. This blending of knowledge and ideas from different civilizations contributed to the refinement and development of devices like the portable sundial.

Visiting the Archaeological Museum of Philippi

For those fortunate enough to visit the Archaeological Museum of Philippi, this remarkable artifact is showcased among a wealth of historical treasures. On the first floor, visitors can explore archaeological and historical materials from the prehistoric settlement of Dikili Tash, as well as artifacts from the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The second floor offers a journey through the Christian city's history, from its early Christian prosperity to its eventual decline after the Ottoman conquest in the late 14th century.

The portable sundial from the period 250–350 AD, on display at the Archaeological Museum of Philippi, stands as a testament to the remarkable innovations of the Hellenistic tradition. Its intricate design and multifaceted utility speak volumes about the thirst for knowledge and precision that permeated the ancient world. As we marvel at this ancient timekeeping device, we are reminded of the enduring legacy of human curiosity and ingenuity that transcends the boundaries of time and place.

The square where Julius Caesar was assassinated is now open to the public

The Curia of Pompey, where Caesar was fatally wounded on the Ides of March, is still standing in this plaza. It served as a senators' gathering place.

Tuesday marked the official opening of a historic square where historians think Julius Caesar was fatally stabbed in one of history's most notorious killings.

A lowered boardwalk now allows visitors to get a close-up view of the Holy Area of Largo Argentina, which is home to the ruins of four ancient temples in a busy area of downtown Rome, for 5 euros ($5.50).

Moreover, the location is home to the ruins of the Curia of Pompey, where Caesar is thought to have been stabbed to death on March 15 (the Ides of March) in 44 B.C.

The location had been occupied by buildings since antiquity, and it wasn't until 1926 when those structures were torn down that it was rediscovered. Mussolini inaugurated it as a significant historical landmark three years later.

The numerous archaeological finds made at the location throughout the years are also documented in two new exhibition rooms.

Early in the third century, work began on what is known as Temple C, a building of significance on the site that was apparently erected in honor of the Roman goddess Feronia.

Most of the earlier structures were destroyed by fire in 111 B.C. and 80 A.D., and their remnants were buried beneath a new floor constructed in the first century by the emperor Domitian.

Even if its specifics and broader ramifications are still being discussed, Caesar's death has persisted in Western culture as one of the most seismic political events in history.

There is agreement that Brutus and a number of Roman senators had grown worried about Caesar's growing strength and influence as well as his undermining of the Republic.

Caesar's murder, however, sparked a period of retaliation and civil war that claimed thousands of lives and effectively ended the Republic. In 27 B.C., Octavian, who had been named as his successor and was then known as Augustus, his adopted 18-year-old son, became what is recognized as Rome's first emperor.

Many significant sites have not yet been investigated, and thousands of artifacts have been discovered that have never been displayed in public due to Italy's immense abundance of archaeological treasures.

As additional artifacts are discovered, historians' understanding of ancient Rome continues to change. In May, archaeologists described how people were killed in an earthquake brought on by the massive eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79. In April, a new study shed light on the usage of Roman vineyards in theatrical rituals.

Early traces of the world-famous foie gras in the land of ancient Egypt

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by Giorgio Pintzas Monzani

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Criticized by many for its production processes, hated by many for its peculiar flavor, and considered by many to be the most prized and delicious food there is: foie gras, it always brings with it ranks of supporters and opponents to every banquet it comes to.

Associated with French cuisine, and historically linked (mistakenly) to Gallic origins and the opulent eras of kings and palaces, foie gras actually traverses human history back millennia, and finds its origins in the Nile swamps, a land of legends, myths, and fascinating stories.

The reality is that the error in attributing the birth of this dish is made by even the most passionate foodies, as it is a paternity that Egypt has never pushed so hard to claim.

Thus, it remains a common mistake, but one that for the most curious must be analyzed historically.

Why does it originate specifically in Egypt?

How and who subsequently imports it into Europe?

How did it come to be famous within "cuisine francaise"?

The civilization of ancient Egypt, throughout its millennia of history, has always been a nucleus of innovation in every sphere, laying the foundation for the great European and African civilizations that flourished later.

Even from the point of view of food preparation and storage, some of the inventions that occurred on the banks of the Nile are still considered innovative and in our case even progenitors of the world of gourmet cuisine.

As introduced earlier, the process of foie gras preparation was first used by the farmers of ancient Egypt, and more specifically by those in the marshy areas of the Nile delta.

Birth unrelated to the world of food

Why this process was started on the animal in order to obtain a fatter liver still divides some historians today.

In addition to the goal of producing a food that was pleasing to the taste, in fact, the Egyptians used the liver of geese, ducks and other animals to produce the first candles known to man as early as around 3,000 b.c.e. by coating dried reed reeds with animal fat.

As for the food, on the other hand, there is evidence of its preparation dating to around 2,500 b.c.e., this thanks to frescoes found in the necropolis at Memphis.

Of course, there are no dates and certainties related to which practice was first implemented, although it is believed that the use of the candle originated first: thus assuming that after using a fatty liver as fuel to illuminate the dark desert nights, man tasted this extraordinary and original product for the palates of the time.

Pharaonic banquets

We have seen how foie gras originated in Egypt, thanks to the numerous presence of these animals in the paludal areas of the Nile and the craftsmanship of Egyptian artisans, despite which it cannot be described as a food on the tables of all inhabitants.

The labor commitment and cost of preparing foie gras was high from the very beginning, causing it to be presented as a niche product from the very beginning.

So if we could go back in time and conduct a documentary on the food of ancient Egypt, we would not find goose or duck liver pâté in the tables of peasants or merchants, but in the majestic banquets held in the imposing palaces of the pharaohs.

We might, in fact, enjoy ancient foie gras in the company of the priests and nobles of this splendid society.

The journey of foie gras to Europe

After analyzing the birth, the question arises.

How did the food arrive on European soil?

The answer lies behind the journey of the first Greek pharaoh in Egypt's history: Alexander the Great.

As we all know, the Macedonian king arrived on the shores of Egypt during his journey to conquer the then known world.

Alexander's army conquered the land almost peacefully, as the Persian empire (which had ruled the Egyptian lands since 525 b.c.e.) surrendered to the Greek forces, and Philip II's son was welcomed as a liberator, so much so that he was crowned pharaoh in 332 b.c.e.

The globalization brought by the Macedonian empire made cultural exchanges between all the conquered territories even more possible: thus the various culinary customs of the various cultures also came into contact, without collision but leading to the birth and discovery of many ingredients and preparations, including even Egyptian foie gras.

In fact, this increase in food exchange made possible the discovery of the product in the Greek peninsula as well.

The arrival of foie gras in Rome

The fall of the Macedonian empire by the hands of the Roman army, first with its defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 B.C. and later with its annexation to the Roman republic in 148 B.C., indelibly marked the history of Europe.

Although Roman policy toward the Greek territories was filled with contempt and exploitation, the empire's intellectuals and wealthy looked upon Hellenic culture with great admiration and respect, which fostered the "Greekization" of many cultural aspects of the then capital of the world.

The Roman poet Quintus Horatius Flaccus in one of his epistles wrote, "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit," meaning that the crude and fierce conqueror, subdued the Greeks with arms, but the Greeks with letters and art civilized Rome and the whole of the then empire.

The increase then economic and mercantile exchanges between the two territories, now under the same reign, were fortified and increased exponentially.

It can therefore be assumed that the product whose history we are tracing came into close contact with the Roman empire at this time.

Certainly even earlier Rome was aware of the Greek culinary culture, but as mentioned above, goose fatty liver never represented an everyday food, but rather a whim and glitz of the rich in the palace.

And it is precisely during this period that it may have arrived in the empire's market.

A detail that reinforces this theory of ours, lies behind the figure of Marcus Gavius Apicius, the most important gastronome, cook, and writer that antiquity has ever seen.

An almost mythological figure in fact, given the paucity of information about his personal life, according to many a figure to whom cookbooks written by many different authors are credited, a kind of gastronomic deity.

Apicius' foie gras

Marcus Gavius Apicius, at the turn of the first century B.C. and the first century A.D., created real guidelines on feeding birds in order to obtain the best possible foie gras.

Within the collection "De re coquinaria," a bible of gastronomy considered by many to be the greatest gastronomic work in history, Apicius recounts how to sweeten the wild taste of the liver of these birds, it was necessary to feed the animal with figs.

This technique was so revolutionary that it also left an etymological trail behind it; enough to think that the word "ficatum", which means liver in Latin, takes its root from the very fruit that Marcus Gavio used to create his foie gras, the "ficum."

The arrival of the dish in France

As everyone knows, the Roman Empire extended to a great many territories in central Europe, including present-day France, called Gaul at the time.

Thanks to this rule we finally have the arrival of our protagonist in Gallic, French territory.

It was precisely the magnificent technique of the gastronome Apicius that made foie gras the protagonist at all imperial banquets, in every corner of Roman territory.

But how did it become famous in French cuisine in later years?

The reality is that the dish had a dark period after the fall of the Roman Empire, and the use of goose fat was carried on only by European Jewish families.

Until, during the reign of Louis XIV, cooks throughout the kingdom, seeking to impress the king's overweening and vitiated palate resorted to forgotten recipes that would charm royal banquets.

It was at one of the banquets, probably in the palace of Versailles, that a cook decided to prepare foie gras and have the king taste it: delighted by the delicacy and deliciousness of the dish, he declared it the "food of kings," giving it a second life and making it famous throughout the French palaces.

To mention only that in 1778, the governor of Alsace, had his best foie gras tasted by King Louis XVI, who immediately appreciated it, making a gift of 20 gold coins to the court cook: from there, every cook in the French kingdom studied new recipes to astound their sovereigns, making foie gras the most requested dish by the European aristocracy.

Even today the dish is still associated with wealth, power, and splendor; for as we know, history rarely changes.

Why?

Because after all, we are...what we used to eat.

What is the Phantom Time Hypothesis Theory?

By Katie Serena | Checked By John Kuroski

Original title: Bizarre Phantom Time Hypothesis Theory Says It’s Actually The Year 1720 Because The Early Middle Ages Were Faked

According to the Phantom Time Hypothesis, Charlemagne never existed along with 297 years that were just made up.

In a world where every idea seems divisive, it can help to know there are at least a few things that the world as a whole agrees on. Time, the calendar, and the basic idea that history as we know it happened pretty much like historians say it did are just a few of those things. After all, at the very least we can all agree that the year is 2017, right?

Wrong.

According to German historian Heribert Illig, the year is actually 1720, the Gregorian calendar is a lie, and a chunk of Middle Ages was completely made up.

No, this man is not crazy (at least not officially) and he actually claims to have archeological evidence to support his case.

In 1991, Illig proposed his theory, aptly called the Phantom Time Hypothesis. He claims there was conspiracy entered into back in 1000 AD to change the dating system by three world rulers.

Illig claims that Pope Sylvester II, Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII all got together and changed the calendar to make it seem as if Otto had begun his reign in the millennial year of 1000 AD, rather than 996. The reason being that 1000 sounded a lot more meaningful than 996 considering AD stands for “anno domini,” or, “the year of the Lord.”

Illig further claims that the trio altered existing documents, and created fraudulent historical events and people in order to back themselves up. He claims that Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne was not in fact a real ruler, but simply a King Arthur-type legend. He explains that through all of this tampering and forgery, an extra 297 years were added to history.

Two hundred and ninety-seven years that didn’t actually happen.

Illig says that an inadequate system of dating medieval artifacts, as well as an over-reliance on written history are to blame. According to his research, the years between 614 and 911 AD don’t quite add up. The years prior to 614 were full of historically significant events, as were the years after 911, however, he claims that the ones in between were unusually dull.

He also points out that mathematical discrepancies between the Julian and Gregorian calendars further complicates things. The Julian calendar says that a full year is 365.25 days long, whereas the Gregorian calendar — the one we use now — says it’s actually 11 minutes shorter than that.

Furthermore, Illig claims that Roman architecture in 10th century western Europe is too modern for the time period in which it was supposedly built.

Though his Phantom Time Hypothesis seems far fetched, Illig has actually managed to find some supporters.

Dr. Hans-Ulrich Niemitz published a paper in 1995 titled “Did the Early Middle Ages Really Exist?” in which he claims they did not.

“Between Antiquity (1 AD) and the Renaissance (1500 AD) historians count approximately 300 years too many in their chronology,” Niemitz wrote. “In other words: the Roman emperor Augustus really lived 1700 years ago instead of the conventionally assumed 2000 years.”

Some of Niemitz’s claims echoed Illig’s, such has the discrepancies between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the lack of reliable historical sources. Though, Neimitz did admit that a counterargument could exist, as the Byzantium and Islamic regions were at war during the period, which was well documented.

Most historians worldwide are critical of the Phantom Time Hypothesis. Countless historians have chosen to argue it have used recorded dates of solar eclipses to do so, along with documented histories from other parts of the world that overlap the “missing” time periods.

Ancient Graffiti: How ancient Greek and Roman tourists left "bad reviews" in this Egyptian tomb

Text-photo: Ray Boone, PorcupineMerchant

“I visited and I did not like anything but the sarcophagus!”

That’s just one of many random scribblings left in the Tomb of Ramesses V & VI in the Valley of the Kings.

This tomb has been open since antiquity, and the evidence of that is everywhere. Ancient tourists left their marks — sometimes in Latin, most often in Greek. Usually they’re down low, but some are up near the ceiling, which obviously suggests there were spots where the sand rose quite high.

Some of the visitors were doctors. Others were philosophers or high-ranking officials. And for the most part, they weren’t only there as sightseers; they came as some sort of pilgrimage, as they believed the tomb to be that of Memnon, a hero in the Trojan War.

Which was obviously not true. Not even a little. But nearby, two giant statues were supposedly of Memnon — partially because of a singing sound they made in the morning. Don’t ask me how that story got started. I mean, I know why, but don’t ask. I’ll have to explain the whole thing, and neither one of us wants that.

Some of the graffiti is poetry, most is the equivalent of “I was here.” Someone would write their name and their occupation, and the most common phrase used was “I admired.” In one case, some dude’s secretary did the carving for him, and he just wrote “I admired” next to it. How lazy do you have to be, that you’re traveling around Egypt with your own personal graffiti artist?

Roman Holiday

It’s a little odd to think of Romans going on these elaborate vacations, but that’s exactly what happened. After all, they weren’t all that different from us. The wealthy ones would sail down to Alexandria, where they could see the famous lighthouse. Then they’d get a peek at the Pyramids, hop on a boat, and cruise down the Nile. Two of the Seven Wonders checked off the list.

Do you think they had some ancient equivalent of guide books? Probably — because all sorts of Romans were stopping at the Colossi of Memnon, which are absolutely covered in graffiti. Even the Emperor Hadrian visited. Then his boyfriend drowned in the Nile. But that’s a different story. Don’t ask. Why are you trying to get me off topic?

So you head down on this exotic Egyptian adventure, checking out all the sights, hanging around some awesome Egyptian festivals and drinking copious amounts of beer. And of course you’d go see those two huge statues and the tombs.

Like I said before, the Colossi of Memnon was a hot ticket item back then. Well, I don’t think there were actual tickets. It’s just an expression. Actually, there aren’t tickets now, either. They just sit by the side of the road.

These statues would “sing” in the morning, which we now think was the result of evaporating dew in the morning. The Romans thought these were of Memnon — they’re actually Amenhotep III — and due to him sharing one of his names with a name inside the tomb we’re talking about, the Romans decided it was the tomb of Memnon.

Now, despite the fact that we’re talking about a time over a thousand years after Ramesses V & VI, I’ve got to think some Egyptians knew the Romans were wrong. So why didn’t they correct them? That’s a good question, and I don’t have an answer. I guess if Romans are coming to your town and throwing money around, you just let them think what they want. Or maybe when an Emperor shows up, you don’t try to correct him. I probably wouldn’t. You just snicker at him behind his back.

Kind of like how I’d do if I met Jeff Bezos and he had some toilet paper stuck to his shoe. Am I going to tell him? No way.

The Entourage

“I, Ammonios, singularis of Italy, saw and admire it.”

With every super important official, there was surely an entourage. Like Bieber. Wait, is that an outdated reference now? Does Bieber still have an entourage?

So this guy named Ammonios wasn’t an official. He wasn’t a super important guy at all. Now, he was important in the military, as he was presumably a guard for an Emperor, but probably not the kind of dude who’d go on a really fancy vacation.

It gives you an idea of who was visiting these tombs. The rich folk, and everyone who came with them. And as I said, they were mostly respectful — well, as respectful as you can get when you’re scratching words into the walls. The bulk of the graffiti is placed in a way that it doesn’t obscure any of the hieroglyphs or other art.

A team from Poland did an extensive survey and found over a thousand instances of ancient graffiti in this tomb. But it’s not all just people writing their names and saying they had a nice time.

“I cannot read the hieroglyphs,” wrote one person.

“Why do you care that you cannot read the hieroglyphs? I do not understand your concern!” wrote someone else, right below it.

It seems that even back then, they had Twitter replies. I can just picture some Roman holding a torch, reading what someone else wrote, and thinking “Jesus Christ, what a moron. You’re looking at all of this awesome shit, and that’s what you’ve got to say?” So he hands his torch over to his buddy, pulls out a knife, and starts scratching a rebuttal.

Well…he probably didn’t say “Jesus Christ.”

Anyway, if you’re ever in Luxor I’d highly recommend visiting this tomb. It’s one of the biggest in the Valley of the Kings, and the colors are still extremely bright. It does require buying an extra ticket, but it’s worth it. You don’t really notice the graffiti unless you’re looking for it. And in case you’re wondering, Ramesses V built part of it, then he died and Ramesses VI finished it. They were both buried here. I guess old Number 6 figured it’d be easier to take over than starting fresh.

And like the spirits of those ancient kings who live on in the afterlife, my plugs for my Instagram @rayoboone will never die. I have some other tomb pictures on there, you’ll just have to scroll down past the Baby Yoda hand sanitizer.

Public Latrines in Ancient Rome

Almost every Roman city had large public latrines, where many people - often 20 or more - could relieve themselves in remarkably opulent settings. This video explores how the use, decoration, and (many) hazards of Rome's latrines.

The Romans were unprecedented in their adoption of toilets. Around the first century bc, public latrines became a major feature of Roman infrastructure, much like bathhouses, says Koloski-Ostrow. And nearly all city dwellers had access to private toilets in their residences.

They were afraid of connecting their houses to the sewers, since they feared what might climb out of a sewer into one's house. They also feared the mephitic gas fires that sometimes burned in sewer holes or in the open seats in public toilets.

Among them was the use of communal toilets, featuring the long benches with small holes cut into them. These benches sat above channels of flowing water, although each communal toilet was different in the depth and velocity of the water flowing underneath.

Our ancient Roman would simply wipe him- or herself, rinse the tersorium in whatever was available (running water and/or a bucket of vinegar or salt water), and leave it for the next person to use. That's right, it was a shared butt cleaner.

Apparently during the flood water with faeces could spill from toilets; in turn, a large amount of methane in the pipes could even cause a flame explosion. The proof that ancient Romans were afraid – in some sense – of toilets is the fact that we find fewer traces of graffiti in toilets than in other public places.

If you relieved yourself in a public latrine in ancient Rome, you may have used a tersorium to wipe. These ancient devices consisted of a stick with a vinegar- or salt water-soaked sponge attached.

Greek Archaeologists Unearthed Stunning Roman-Era Statue of Hercules at Philippi, Eastern Macedonia

A larger than life-sized statue of Hercules, unearthed by archaeologists from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, may have adorned a public fountain.

The statue, depicting a youthful Hercules, dates to the 2nd century AD. © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The latest season of archaeological fieldwork at Philippi in northeast Greece, carried out by members of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, came to an end last week with a startling new discovery.

This year’s excavations, led by Professor Natalia Poulou, focused on the east side of one of the main streets of the ancient Macedonian city, which meets another main axis passing further north. The point of convergence between the two streets is marked by a large square dominated by a richly decorated edifice, most likely a public fountain.

A lion's pelt hangs from the statue's left arm, attesting to its identity as the ancient hero Hercules.

© Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

The edifice bore a special architectural decoration, fragments of which were discovered during the excavation. Its decoration was complemented by an impressive larger than life-sized statue from the Roman period, dating to the 2nd century AD.

The statue depicts a youthful Hercules, the Roman equivalent of the Greek Heracles, holding a club – fragments of which were found during the excavation – and a lion’s pelt hanging from his outstretched left hand, attesting to the identity of the hero. He is also depicted wearing a wreath of vine leaves with a tape at the back, the ends of which drape across his broad shoulders.

The archaeologists believe the statue adorned a public fountain.

© Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

According to the research team, and based on the findings from the excavation, the statue adorned a much later building from the 8th or 9th century. It is known form contemporary sources that Classical and Roman-era statues were used to decorate buildings and places of public use up until the Late Byzantine period.

The discovery at Philippi now confirms this to be the case – that pre-Christian statues were used to decorate public spaces in important cities of the Byzantine empire.

The excavations, attended by 24 students and funded by the Research Committee of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, will continue next year.

Monument of Episkopi; From a Roman Mausoleum to a Byzantine Church

The monument of Episkopi on Sikinos, one of the smallest Cycladic islands, is a Roman mausoleum dating back to the 3rd century. Because of its conversion to a Byzantine church, it was continuously used and has therefore survived nearly intact. Its ancient structure, combined with interventions from several historical periods, offers an incomparable palimpsest of archaeological periods that is rarely preserved in ancient monuments.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

Severely affected by destructive earthquakes and human interventions throughout the centuries, the monument was abandoned in the 20th century. The Ephorate of Antiquities of the Cyclades decided to restore the building in 2016 and reopen it to the public.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

The restoration study was undertaken by the scientific personnel of the Ephorate; Elliniki Etairia – Society for the Environment and Cultural Heritage and the A. & M. Martinou Foundation funded the structural and geotechnical studies. The restoration project was financed by the European Regional Development Fund and the Region of South Aegean.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

The impressive ancient mausoleum that was created on the verge of Late Antiquity, has been an important landmark for the island of Sikinos throughout the centuries. The archaeological research that took place during its restoration significantly increased knowledge of funerary monuments of the Roman period in the Eastern Mediterranean Region as well as of Cycladic Byzantine churches.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

During the restoration work on Episkopi, archaeologists made many valuable discoveries, such as inscriptions and remnants of Roman and Byzantine wall paintings, which were preserved by implementing a microclimate monitoring system. The most important find was the hermetically sealed grave of a woman of high rank, named ‘Neiko’, which was dated to the 3rd century.

photo credit Θάνος Καρτσόγλου, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού

The community of Sikinos was strongly committed to the restoration of the monument of Episkopi and provided housing, transportation and even equipment. With the monument having been closed to the public for half a century, the local community now aspires to reinstate its vital bond with this cultural heritage site, first by re-establishing the annual feast in August for the celebration of the Dormition of Virgin Mary and then by launching cultural activities in this unique archaeological setting, in collaboration with the Ephorate of Antiquities of Cyclades.

The History of Writing: Tracing the Development of expressing Language by Systems of Markings

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by dimosthenis vasiloudis

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Protowriting, ideographic systems, or early mnemonic symbols came before more advanced writing systems in the evolution of writing in human societies (symbols or letters that make remembering them easier).

A subsequent development is true writing, in which the content of a spoken language is encoded so that another reader may reasonably reconstruct the identical utterance written down. It differs from proto-writing, which frequently forgoes recording grammatical words and affixes, making it harder or even impossible to reassemble the precise meaning intended by the writer unless a substantial amount of context is already known in advance.

Writing innovations

The idea that writing originated in a single civilization and was called "monogenesis" persisted for a long time. According to academics, all writing originated in Mesopotamia's ancient Sumer and spread around the world as a result of cultural diffusion. This argument holds that traders or merchants traveling between geographical locations passed on the idea of representing language by written signs, though perhaps not necessarily the specifics of how such a system operated.

The finding of ancient Mesoamerican scripts, far from Middle Eastern sources, demonstrated, however, that writing had been created more than once. In at least four ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia (between 3400 and 3100 BCE), Egypt (about 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala, writing may have independently originated (by 500 BCE).

Some academics have suggested that ancient Egypt "The earliest authentic examples of Egyptian writing differ from Mesopotamian writing in both structure and style, indicating that they must have emerged independently. Although there is still a chance that Mesopotamian "stimulus dispersion" occurred, the influence could not have extended beyond the dissemination of an idea."

Because there is no evidence of communication between ancient China and the Near Eastern literate civilizations, as well as because Mesopotamian and Chinese approaches to phonetic representation differ, it is thought that ancient Chinese characters are independent creations.

The Vinča symbols.

The Rongorongo script of Easter Island, the Vina symbols from about 5500 BCE, and the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization are all controversial. Since none have been translated, it is unclear if they all represent real writing, protowriting, or something entirely different.

The earliest coherent texts date from around 2600 BCE, and Sumerian archaic (pre-cuneiform) writing and Egyptian hieroglyphs are usually regarded as the earliest authentic writing systems. Both developed out of their ancestors' proto-literate symbol systems between 3400 and 3100 BCE. The Proto-Elamite script belongs to roughly the same time frame.

writing methods

Writing systems are distinct from symbolic communication systems. For most writing systems, reading a text requires some knowledge of the spoken language that goes along with it. In contrast, it's not always necessary to have a prior understanding of a spoken language to use symbolic systems like information signs, paintings, maps, and mathematics. Every human group has its own language, which is thought by many to be a natural and essential aspect of mankind.

Writing system development has been intermittent, uneven, and delayed, and old oral communication systems have only been partially replaced. Writing systems generally develop more slowly after they are formed than their spoken counterparts and frequently preserve traits and idioms that have been lost to the spoken language.

Three writing standards are thought to apply to all writing systems. First, writing must be comprehensive; it must have a meaning or purpose, and it must make a point or be able to convey that message. Second, whether they are physical or digital, all writing systems must include some kind of symbol that can be created on a surface. In order to facilitate communication, the writing system's symbols must resemble spoken words or speech.

The greatest advantage of writing is that it gives society a way to regularly and thoroughly preserve information—something that the spoken word could not previously do as successfully. Writing enables communities to communicate knowledge, transmit information, and

stages of development

Sumer

An ancient civilization of southern Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where written language was first invented around 3200 BCE.

Beginning with the Neolithic pottery phase, when clay tokens were used to keep track of particular quantities of animals or other goods, writing first appeared. These tokens were initially imprinted on the exterior of spherical clay envelopes, which were later used to keep them. Afterwards, flat tablets were gradually introduced in place of the tokens, and signs were recorded using a stylus. Towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE, Uruk was where actual writing was first discovered. Other areas of the Near East quickly followed.

The earliest recorded account of the development of writing is found in a poem from ancient Mesopotamia:

The Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and wrote on it like a tablet because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat the message. It has never been possible to write on clay before.

Enmerkar and the King of Aratta, a Sumerian epic written around 1800 BCE

Although there is agreement among scholars as to the difference between prehistory and the history of early writing, there is disagreement as to when proto-writing became "real writing." The criteria are somewhat arbitrary. In the broadest sense, writing is a way of keeping track of information. It is made up of graphemes, which in turn can be made up of glyphs.

Many centuries of shattered inscriptions typically follow the advent of writing in a particular region. The presence of coherent texts in a culture's writing system is how historians determine a culture's "historicity".

Standard reconstruction of the development of writing. There is a possibility that the Egyptian script was invented independently from the Mesopotamian script.

A conventional "proto-writing to true writing" system follows a general series of developmental stages:

Picture writing system: glyphs (simplified pictures) directly represent objects and concepts. In connection with this, the following substages may be distinguished:

• Mnemonic: glyphs primarily as a reminder.

• Pictographic: glyphs directly represent an object or a concept such as (A) chronological, (B) notices, (C) communications, (D) totems, titles, and names, (E) religious, (F) customs, (G) historical, and (H) biographical.

• Ideographic: graphemes are abstract symbols that directly represent an idea or concept.

Pre-cuneiform tags, with drawing of goat or sheep and number (probably "10"): "Ten goats", Al-Hasakah, 3300–3100 BCE, Uruk culture.

Transitional system: graphemes refer not only to the object or idea that it represents but to its name as well.

• Phonetic system: graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings. This resolves itself into the following substages:

• Verbal: grapheme (logogram) represents a whole word.

• Syllabic: grapheme represents a syllable.

• Alphabetic: grapheme represents an elementary sound.

Designs on some of the labels or token from Abydos, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BC and among the earliest form of writing in Egypt. They are remarkably similar to contemporary clay tags from Uruk, Mesopotamia.

The best known picture writing system of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols are:

• Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, c. 6600 BCE

• Vinča symbols (Tărtăria tablets), c. 5300 BCE[24]

• Early Indus script, c. 3100 BCE

In the Old World, true writing systems developed from neolithic writing in the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium BC).

Locations and timeframes

Comparative evolution

from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian cuneiforms, Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters

Proto-writing

The first writing systems of the Early Bronze Age were not a sudden invention. Rather, they were a development based on earlier traditions of symbol systems that cannot be classified as proper writing, but have many of the characteristics of writing. These systems may be described as "proto-writing". They used ideographic or early mnemonic symbols to convey information, but it probably directly contained no natural language. These systems emerged in the early Neolithic period, as early as the 7th millennium BC, and include:

• The Jiahu symbols found carved in tortoise shells in 24 Neolithic graves excavated at Jiahu, Henan province, northern China, with radiocarbon dates from the 7th millennium BCE. Most archaeologists consider these not directly linked to the earliest true writing.

• Vinča symbols, sometimes called the "Danube script", are a set of symbols found on Neolithic era (6th to 5th millennia BCE) artifacts from the Vinča culture of Central Europe and Southeast Europe.

• The Dispilio Tablet of the late 6th millennium may also be an example of proto-writing.

• The Indus script, which from 3500 BCE to 1900 BCE was used for extremely short inscriptions.

The Dispilio Tablet

The Dispilio tablet is a wooden tablet bearing inscribed markings, unearthed during George Hourmouziadis's excavations of Dispilio in Greece, and carbon 14-dated to 5202 (± 123) BC.

It was discovered in 1993 in a Neolithic lakeshore settlement that occupied an artificial island near the modern village of Dispilio on Lake Kastoria in Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece.

Even after the Neolithic, a number of societies used proto-writing as a transitional form before adopting formal writing. Such a mechanism might have existed in the quipu of the Incas (15th century CE), often known as "talking knots". Another example is the pictographs created by Uyaquk before the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language developed the Yugtun syllabary around 1900.

Ancient writing

The Bronze Age saw the development of writing in a wide range of cultures. Indus script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Cretan hieroglyphs, Chinese logographs, Sumerian cuneiform writing, and the Olmec script of Mesoamerica are a few examples. Around 1600 BCE, the Chinese script most likely evolved apart from the Middle Eastern scripts. It is also generally accepted that the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican writing systems, which include the Olmec and Maya scripts, had separate origins. In 2000 BCE, it is believed that the first real alphabetic writing was created for Hebrew laborers in the Sinai by assigning Semitic values to mostly Egyptian hieratic characters (see History of the alphabet and Proto-Sinaitic alphabet).

Ethiopia's Geez writing system is regarded as Semitic. With roots in the Meroitic Sudanese ideogram system, it is most likely of semi-independent origin. The majority of alphabets used today are either direct descendants of this one invention, many through the Phoenician alphabet, or were designed in direct response to it. The early Old Italic alphabet and Plautus (c. 750–250 BCE) were separated by around 500 years in Italy, while the Elder Futhark inscriptions and early works like the Abrogans (c. 200–750 CE) are separated by a similar amount of time in the case of the Germanic peoples.

Cuneiform writing

The first Sumerian script was derived from a system of clay tokens used to denote different types of goods. This had developed into a system of keeping accounts by the end of the fourth millennium BC, utilizing a stylus with a circular form that was impressed into soft clay at various angles to record numbers. A pointed stylus was used to gradually add pictographic lettering on this to show what was being counted. Writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the name "cuneiform") began to include phonetic features by the 29th century BCE and gradually replaced writing with a round stylus and a sharp stylus by about 2700–2500 BCE.

Cuneiform first started to represent Sumerian syllables around 2600 BCE. Ultimately, cuneiform writing evolved into a general-purpose system for writing numerals, syllables, and logograms. This alphabet was adapted to the Akkadian language starting in the 26th century BCE, and from there to others like Hurrian and Hittite. This writing system resembles Old Persian and Ugaritic scripts in appearance.

Hieroglyphics from Egypt

Literacy was concentrated among a well-educated elite of scribes, who played a crucial role in upholding the Egyptian empire through writing. To become scribes in the employ of temple, royal (pharaonic), and military authority, one had to come from a certain background.

According to Geoffrey Sampson, the general concept of expressing words from a language in writing was likely transmitted to Egypt via Sumerian Mesopotamia. Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into being a little after Sumerian script, and, possibly [were], invented under the influence of the latter." Despite the significance of early Egypt-Mesopotamia links, "no definitive judgment has been established as to the genesis of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt" due to the lack of direct evidence. However, it is stated and agreed upon that "a very compelling argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt" and that "the evidence for such direct influence remains fragile."

Egyptian writing does suddenly appear at that time, but Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to around 8000 BCE. Since the 1990s, discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the conventional idea that the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. These glyphs were discovered in tomb U-J at Abydos; they were written on ivory and most likely served as labels for other items discovered there.

Even though he acknowledged that Egypt's geographic location made it a receptacle for many influences, Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar maintained that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols originated from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and that in regards to writing, "we have seen that a purely Nilotic, therefore African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality."

Elamite writing

The unintelligible Proto-Elamite writing first appears around 3100 BCE. Around the latter third millennium, it is thought to have evolved into Linear Elamite, which was later supplanted by Elamite Cuneiform, which was adapted from Akkadian.

Indus script

Most inscriptions containing these symbols are extremely short, making it difficult to judge whether or not these symbols constituted a writing system used to record the as yet unidentified language(s) of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Indus script has been assigned to markings and symbols discovered at numerous Indus Valley civilization sites due to the hypothesis that they were used to transcribe the Harappan language. It is disputed whether the script, which was in use from roughly 3500 to 1900 BCE, is a Bronze Age writing script (logographic-syllabic) or merely proto-writing symbols. According to analysis, it was written in boustrophedon or from right to left.

early SEMITIC ALPHABETS

Around 1800 BCE in Ancient Egypt, the first "abjads," which mapped individual symbols to individual phonemes but not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol, appeared as a representation of the language created there by Semitic workers. However, by that time, alphabetic principles had only a remote chance of being ingrained into Egyptian hieroglyphs for upwards of a millennium.

Did the Proto-Canaanite alphabet take its symbols independently of the hieroglyphs?

It is only until the end of the Bronze Age that the Proto-Sinaitic script separates into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (c. 1400 BCE), Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (c. 1200 BCE). These early abjads remained of minor significance for several decades. The untranslated Byblos syllabary most likely had some influence on the Proto-Canaanite, which in turn provided inspiration for the Ugaritic alphabet (c. 1300 BCE).

Anatolian hieroglyphs

The Luwian language was written down using Anatolian hieroglyphs, a native hieroglyphic script found in western Anatolia. Around the fourteenth century BCE, it initially appeared on royal seals of the Luwians.

Chinese characters

The corpus of inscriptions on oracle bones and brass from the late Shang dynasty is the earliest authenticated example of the Chinese script that has been found so far. The oldest of these is believed to date from about 1200 BCE.

There have been recent finds of tortoise-shell carvings from around 6000 BCE, such as Jiahu Script and Banpo Script, but it is debatable whether or not the carvings are complex enough to be considered writing. 3,172 cliff carvings from the period between 6000 and 5000 BCE have been found near Damaidi in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They contain 8,453 different characters, including images of the sun, moon, stars, gods, and scenes of grazing or hunting.

Replica

of ancient Chinese script on an oracle turtle shell

These pictographs are thought to resemble the first Chinese characters that have been confirmed to be written. Writing in China would predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, traditionally recognized as the first manifestation of writing, by about 2,000 years if it were to be considered a written language. However, it is more likely that the inscriptions represent a type of proto-writing, comparable to the modern European Vinca script.

Early Greek and Cretan scripts

Cretan relics include hieroglyphic writing (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). The Mycenaean Greek writing system, Linear B, has been decoded, but Linear A has not yet been. The three overlapping, but distinct, Aegean pre-alphabetic writing systems can be categorized according to their chronological order and geographic distribution as follows:

• Cretan Hieroglyphic / Crete (eastward from the Knossos-Phaistos axis) / c. 2100−1700 BCE

• Linear A / Crete (except extreme southwest), Aegean Islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), Greek mainland (Laconia) and west Minor Asia (Miletus and maybe Troy) / c. 1800−1450 BCE

• Linear B / Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) / c. 1450−1200 BCE

The archaeological finds with signs of pre-alphabetic scripts in the Aegean

(Up) The finds with signs of Linear B script reach about 6,000 and constitute the majority of the pre-alphabetic written monuments of the Aegean.

(Middle) About 1,400 are the finds which imprint Linear A and make up a 11% of all pre-alphabetic inscriptions.

(Down) Cretan hieroglyphics occupies 2% of the available finds with only 400 finds.

Illustration: Dimosthenis Vasiloudis

Mesoamerica

The Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing that predates the first Zapotec writing from around 500 BCE, was found in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere.

Stela 12 and 13

from the southern end of Building L, in the Zapotec city of Monte Albán, Outside of Oaxaca, Mexico.

The Maya script is one of numerous pre-Columbian scripts found in Mesoamerica, and it appears to have been the most well-developed and extensively deciphered. The earliest clearly identifiable Maya inscriptions date to the third century BCE, and writing continued to be used until just before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century BCE. A combination of logograms and syllabic symbols, utilized in Maya writing, is somewhat reminiscent of current Japanese writing.

IRON AGE WRITING

The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which was used into the Iron Age, is all that the Phoenician alphabet is (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BCE). The Greek and Aramaic alphabets were derived from this alphabet. They eventually gave rise to the writing systems that are currently used everywhere, from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. The Greek alphabet, on the other hand, was the first to use specific symbols to represent vowel sounds.

By Matt Baker

In the first centuries of the Common Era, the Greek and Latin alphabets gave rise to a number of European scripts, including the Runes, Gothic, and Cyrillic alphabets, while the Aramaic alphabet developed into the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac abjads, the latter of which spread as far as Mongolian script. The Ge'ez abugida originated from the South Arabian alphabet. According to some academics, the Indian Brahmic family also descended from the Aramaic alphabet.

GRAKLIANI HILL WRITING

At Georgia's Grakliani Hill, behind a fallen altar from a temple dedicated to a fertility goddess from the seventh century BCE, an obscure script was uncovered in 2015. Grakliani's other temples' inscriptions, which depict animals, people, or decorative features, are different from these ones. Although its letters are rumored to be connected to ancient Greek and Aramaic, the script has no similarities to any known alphabet. In contrast, the earliest Armenian and Georgian letters come from the fifth century CE, right after the respective nations converted to Christianity. The inscription looks to be the oldest local alphabet ever uncovered in the entire Caucasus region. An portion of the inscription measuring 31 by 3 inches had been unearthed by September 2015.

Grakliani script on the basement of altar of goddess of fertility (XI-X c. BC)

Vakhtang Licheli, director of the State University's Institute of Archaeology, claims that "The writings on the temple's two altars have been kept in remarkably good condition. While the pedestal of the second altar is entirely covered with writings, the first altar has few clay letters carved into it." Unpaid students made the discovery. Inscriptions from Grakliani Hill were sent to Miami Laboratory in 2016 for beta analytic radiocarbon dating, which revealed that they were created between c. 1005 and c. 950 BCE.

WRITING IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician script for use with their own language in the early eighth century BCE, the history of the Greek alphabet officially began. The Greek and Phoenician alphabets share a lot of similarities in terms of their characters, and both alphabets nowadays are written in the same order. The Phoenician system's adapter(s) added three letters to the conclusion of the series, known as the "supplementals." The Greek alphabet evolved into a number of different forms.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens

One was utilized in southern Italy and west of Athens and is known as Western Greek or Chalcidian. The other variant, known as Eastern Greek, was spoken by the Athenians and in modern-day Turkey before spreading over the rest of the Greek-speaking world. The Greeks initially elected to write like the Phoenicians, from right to left, but subsequently switched to left to right. The lines would then alternately read from left to right, then from right to left, and so on. On occasion, though, the writer would begin the next line where the preceding one ended. Up until the sixth century, this style of writing, called "boustrophedon," mirrored the course of an ox-drawn plough.

Italic scripts and Latin

Cippus Perusinus

Etruscan writing near Perugia, Italy, the precursor of the Latin alphabet

All of the contemporary European scripts have their roots in Greek. The Latin alphabet, named after the Latins, a central Italian people who came to rule Europe with the emergence of Rome, is the most widely used descendant of the Greek script. Around the fifth century BCE, the Etruscan civilization, which employed a multitude of Italic scripts descended from the western Greeks, taught the Romans how to write. The other Old Italic scripts have not survived in very large quantities due to the cultural hegemony of the Roman state, and the Etruscan language is largely extinct.

WRITING DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Roman rule in Western Europe fell apart, and the Persian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire became the main centers of literary development. Latin, which was never a major literary language, lost prominence quickly (except within the Roman Catholic Church). Greek and Persian were the two main literary languages, but Syriac and Coptic were also significant.

Arabic quickly became a significant literary language in the area as a result of the development of Islam in the 7th century. Greek's status as a scholarly language soon lost ground to Arabic and Persian. The Turkish and Persian languages now use Arabic script as their principal writing system. The development of the cursive scripts for Greek, the Slavic languages, Latin, and other languages was also greatly inspired by this script.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system was also extended throughout Europe thanks to the Arabic language. The modern Spanish city of Cordoba had emerged as one of the world's leading intellectual hubs by the start of the second millennium and was home to the largest library at the time. Its location at the meeting point of the Islamic and Western Christian worlds encouraged intellectual growth and written exchange between the two cultures.

THE MODERN ERA AND THE RENAISSANCE

By the 14th century, Western Europe had experienced a renaissance, which had temporarily increased the significance of Greek while slowly restoring Latin's status as an important literary language. In Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia, a comparable but smaller emergence took place. As the Islamic Golden Era came to an end, Arabic and Persian also started to slowly lose ground. In order to codify the phonologies of the various languages, the Latin alphabet underwent several alterations as a result of the rebirth of literary development in Western Europe.

Writing has undergone steady change throughout history, in large part because of the emergence of new technologies. Technology advancements such as the printing press, computer, mobile phone, and pen have all changed how and what is written as well as the medium in which it is generated. Characters can now be generated with a button press rather than a hand motion, especially with the development of digital technology like the computer and the smartphone.

Ancient glass vessels restored after Beirut blast go on display at British Museum

Eight objects from Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods were shattered in port explosion two years ago

A team of experts reassembled hundreds of pieces of glass. Photograph: The Trustees of the British Museum the American University of Beirut/PA

Restored ancient glass vessels that were damaged in the Beirut port explosion two years ago have gone on display at the British Museum.

The eight objects, from the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods, have been pieced back together by museum conservation experts and are being showcased at the London venue until October before being returned to Lebanon.

The artefacts are among the precious items to have been saved in an emergency recovery campaign that was launched after the American University in Beirut (AUB) Museum was heavily damaged in the disaster that killed at least 218 people, wounded 7,000 and displaced 300,000 people in August 2020.

The vessels were among 74 items from the Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods in a case at the AUB that fell over after being hit by the shockwave of the explosion, which occurred 2 miles (3km) away after a massive stockpile of ammonium nitrate exploded.

The blast hit the building and smashed the glass objects inside the case.
The British Museum’s director, Hartwig Fischer, said the items – which are on show in an event called Shattered glass Of Beirut at the Asahi Shimbun Displays – “tells a story of near destruction and recovery, of resilience and collaboration”.

Hidde van Seggelen, president of the European Fine Art Foundation (Tefaf), said: “We are immensely gratified to see the restoration of these ancient glass objects come to fruition.”

“Bringing these pieces back to their rightful form has been a compelling symbol of resilience and we are honoured to have been part of this important collaboration,” he added.

A team of experts carefully reassembled hundreds of fragments of glass and the vessels have been repaired so they are structurally sound, although the breakage marks can still be seen.

Dr Nadine Panayot, curator of the AUB Archaeological Museum, said: “Reconstructing these fragmented glass vessels one tiny bit at a time, helped to reunite, to recognise their heritage value, and to build a sense of community.

“To see these shattered and delicate vessels reassembled not only sparked a healing process, but also inspired me to hope for a better future.”

The British Museum said the vessels that have been conserved at the London site are hugely important in telling the story of the development of glass-blowing technology in Lebanon in the first century BC, a period in which glass production was revolutionised.

Last month, the deputy director of the British Museum proposed a Parthenon partnership with Greece that could see the marbles returned to Athens after more than 200 years.

The sculptures – 17 figures and part of a frieze that decorated the 2,500-year-old Parthenon temple on the Acropolis – were taken by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century when he was the British ambassador to the Ottoman empire, and have since been the subject of a long-running dispute over where they should be displayed.

In an interview with the Sunday Times Culture magazine, Jonathan Williams said the British Museum wanted to “change the temperature of the debate” around the marbles.

Williams said: “What we are calling for is an active ‘Parthenon partnership’ with our friends and colleagues in Greece. I firmly believe there is space for a really dynamic and positive conversation within which new ways of working together can be found.”

Ancient graffiti of average-sized penis shows Romans were just as immature as us

Archaeologists have uncovered an ‘unusually large’ carving of a penis at a Roman settlement in Spain.

The 18-inch phallic carving has been found on the foundations of a tower building at a Roman site called El Higuerón.

Romans, at it turns out, were pretty fond of penises. They saw them as a symbol of masculine power and often had them depicted on amulets or weapons.

El Higuerón, a municipality of Nueva Carteya in Spain, was occupied by Iberians in the 4th century BC until the Roman conquest of the region around 206 BC.

Andrés Roldán, a researcher at the University of Extremadura and director of the museum leading the excavations, described the penis as ‘unusually large’.

The penis was found at the El Higuerón archaeological site in southern Spain (Provider: Municipality of Nueva Carteya)

He told El País: ‘It was common to put them on the facades of houses, and soldiers carried small phallic amulets as symbols of virility.

‘We are currently researching whether one of similar dimensions has been previously found.’

The first settlements were found at the El Higuerón archaeological site in 1966. It was originally a military site which the Romans overtook and destroyed.

Ceaser’s men then used the foundations to create their own buildings, with the cock-emblazoned tower building among them.

The archaeologists are excavating this ancient Roman structure built over an even older Iberian settlement. Its sturdy, terraced walls once supported a tower-shaped edifice with a still unknown function (Provider: Municipality of Nueva Carteya)

The structure has perimeter walls six feet thick and flooring made of large limestone blocks.

These would have supported the tower while underground storerooms would be used for containing agricultural products and construction materials.

Ancient Coin Discovery With An Astronomical Mystery

What does the ancient coin found recently off the shores of Israel depict?

You never know what discoveries are waiting to be found in old records or artwork. A recent archaeological find sent us down just such an astronomical rabbit-hole, leading us to ideas that are fun and interesting to consider.

It all started with the recent amazing discovery of the ancient Roman coin off the coast of Haifa, Israel in the Mediterranean Sea. The bronze coin depicts the zodiac sign of Cancer, along with the Moon goddess Selene and crescent Moon. The ancient coin would have been part of a set of twelve, depicting the houses of the zodiac. The coin was recovered by the Israel Antiquities Authority’s Maritime Archaeology Unit.

“This is the first time such a coin has been discovered off Israel’s coast,” says Director of the Maritime Archaeology Unit Jacob Sharvit in a recent press release. “It (the coin) is a rare addition to the National Treasures collection.”

The ancient coin was found as part of a horde from a presumed ancient shipwreck. From the inscription on the obverse, researchers know that the coin was minted in Alexandria, Egypt during year eight of the reign of Roman emperor Antonius Pius, which would translate to 144-145 AD.

Now, I noticed something intriguing on the image, and did some brief research.

The ancient coin also shows a bright ‘star’ near the Moon. I began to wonder if this depicted a real astronomical event, visible from the Mediterranean region in the years before the coin was minted. Now, no bright star exists in Cancer; I therefore suspected it was actually a bright planet, say, Jupiter or Venus. I did a search using the Occult 4.2 program and the planetarium program Stellarium (which takes in to account the ~26,000 year precession of the equinoxes and stellar proper motion over the centuries), and found one event that was especially intriguing: the dusk conjunction of the waxing crescent Moon and Jupiter on the evening of June 4th 140 CE… in the sign of Cancer.

Dusk looking west from the Mediterranean region on the evening of June 4th, 140 AD. Credit: Stellarium

Not only did this occur in the reign of Antoninus Pius, but it would have been visible right before the death of his beloved wife Faustina the Elder in late 140 AD… perhaps the ancient coin commemorates her passing? Certainly there’s record of Pius’s devotion to Faustina, and his subsequent campaign to deify Faustina after her death.

The Moon occults Jupiter on June 4th, 140 CE. Credit: Occult 4.2.

Of course, the modern science of astronomy has its hoary roots in the archaic practice of astrology. Ancients watched the sky, noted what they saw and assigned import to them versus human and terrestrial affairs. We all remember the astrologer’s admonition to Julius Caesar to ‘beware the Ides of March,’ and astronomical historians from Kepler and Newton onward have gone broke trying to link the ‘star’ that guided astrologers to Bethlehem with a true astronomical phenomenon.

Under one possible scenario, a court astrologer could have assigned significance to the conjunction of Jupiter with the Moon in Cancer, a portent that later moved a grieving Pius to commemorate the death of his wife, casting her as the Moon goddess Selene.

The base of the column of Antoninus Pius in Rome, depicting Pius and Faustina. Credit: Saiko/Wikimedia Commons 3.0 license.

I ran this idea past fellow amateur astronomer John Flannery, and he had some interesting ideas. He noted that while it’s tempting to assert that the dots on the shell of the Crab depict the open cluster Praesepe (Messier 44), Steve O’Meara also notes in a past Sky & Telescope column that individual stars in the cluster would be hard to discern with the naked eye.

Flannery also pointed me toward another interesting possibility for the mystery star: the 141 CE apparition of Halley’s comet. I ran a simulation using data from NASA/JPL/Horizons, and 1P/Halley would have been at Right Ascension 9 hours, 13’ 12’, Declination +24º 10’ on April 28th, 141 CE in the adjacent constellation of Leo the Lion shinning at +1st magnitude while the Moon was in Cancer at dusk.

Halley’s Comet in late April, 141 C.E. Credit: Stellarium.

“In astrology, the Moon rules the sign of Cancer,” says Flannery. “Regardless of what the coins depict, I think it is an extraordinarily beautiful set (referring to the twelve coin zodiac set) and shows delicate workmanship.”

We may never know for sure. What could prove or refute the assertion is the discovery of earlier (pre-second century) coins, with the same Moon-star Moon goddess inscription.

Beyond just being a fun astronomical mystery, such depictions of astronomical events in art, text or ancient coins are important in pinpointing dates and events in the past. For example, one recent ancient Chinese text may have chronicled the earliest depiction of aurora, and another text may note a sunset annular eclipse alluded to in the Book of Joshua.

In any event, this is all speculative, but it’s fun to consider. In regards to astrology, Shakespeare said it best: “The fault… is not in our stars, but in ourselves.”

Dawn looking east on the morning of September 8th, 2026. Credit: Stellarium.

In the meantime, you can enjoy another such tryst of the crescent Moon, Jupiter in Cancer at dawn on the morning of September 8th, 2026, followed by a fine occultation of the king of the planets for North America on the next lunar cycle on October 6th, 2026. Be sure to watch if skies are clear as the celestial drama unfolds in the dawn, and wonder just what folks might have seen in the sky, nearly two millennia ago.

Occultation path for the October 6th, 2026 event. Credit: Occult 4.2.

Lead image credit: Roman coin recently discovered off of the coast of Haifa, Israel. Credit: Danfa Gazit/Israel Antiquities Authority.

2,200-year-old Roman fountain unearthed in northwestern Turkey

Excavations in ancient city of Assos continue uninterrupted for 42 years, says head of excavations

CANAKKALE, Turkey

The remains of a 2,200-year-old Roman fountain have been uncovered in northwestern Turkey, archeologists at the ancient site of Assos said on Monday.

"According to our initial findings, we learned that it was a magnificent fountain structure. We know of many cisterns in Assos, but this is the first time we've come across a monumental fountain structure," dig site head Nurettin Arslan told Anadolu Agency.

"It's a very important structure in terms of urban architecture," said Aslan, who is also a professor at the Onsekiz Mart University in Canakkale province, where the ruins are located.

Underlining that the excavations at Assos have continued uninterrupted for 42 years, he said the current 30-strong team, including scientists and academics from Germany, were planning this season to unearth multiple cisterns added onto the ancient city's gymnasium.

The fountain they discovered was in front of these Roman-era cisterns, explained the archeologist, adding that it had been seriously damaged during the Byzantine period.

"Despite this, once the initial excavation is complete, we can re-erect the existing pieces and allow visitors to grasp the scene or appearance in front of the fountain a little better," he said.

Assos, also known as Behramkale, was one of the most important port cities of its era and is a crucial cultural heritage site dating back from the period of Roman rule in the region. It includes an ancient theater, agora, necropolis, and protective walls.

Located 17 kilometers (about 11 miles) south of the present-day town of Ayvacik, it was added to UNESCO's Tentative World Heritage List on April 15, 2017.

According to UNESCO, Assos was also a major Greek city-state, and maintained its regional importance until the Byzantine Empire.

Turkish archaeologists started excavations at Assos in 1981.

New Pompeii Find Is a Middle-Class House Trying to Look Rich

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the year 79 wiped out the city of Pompeii. Even though it’s a bustling tourist site, scientists regularly unearth interesting archeological finds. The most recent includes remarkably well-preserved household items. According to the Archaeological Park of Pompeii’s news release, what’s particularly interesting is their relative simplicity compared to the opulence of the attached courtyard. These finds give a look at Pompeii’s middle-class households.

The property is dubbed the House of the Lararium, which is an altar celebrating the household’s guardian spirits. In this case, that’s good luck and prosperity. The lararium itself suggests a rich occupant. But inside the house, the team found only simple wooden furniture and no paintings. This suggests the middle-class family was keeping up appearances rather than living luxuriously.  

“In the Roman Empire there was a significant proportion of the population which fought for their social status,” explains Massimo Osanna, director general of museums, in the release. “It was a social class that was vulnerable during political crises and famines, but also ambitious to climb the social ladder. In the House of the Lararium at Pompeii, the owner was able to embellish the courtyard with the lararium and the basin for the cistern with exceptional paintings, yet evidently funds were insufficient to decorate the five rooms of the house.”

We saw the news on DesignTAXI. The dig uncovered plates, bowls, and amphorae (long-necked jars) as well as furniture like a wooden cabinet, small table, and chest. Other recent discoveries in and around Pompeii include artifacts belonging to the rich, like a Roman chariot. Or the quarter of very poor slave laborers. Middle-class households are apparently more rare and the House of the Lararium is an interesting and unexpected find.

Archeologists also recently found the remains of a pregnant tortoise in Pompeii. It may not be of cultural significance, but it certainly is very interesting.